Youth Resistance Training: Safety and Concerns

The popularity of resistance training among prepubescent and adolescent individuals has experienced a significant surge. Moreover, leading professional organizations have embraced youth resistance training, emphasizing its effectiveness and safety when conducted under proper supervision. These organizations include the American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Sports Medicine, National Strength and Conditioning Association, International Olympic Committee, and several others.

Despite the widespread acceptance of youth resistance training, some questions and concerns persist. These include inquiries into potential harm to a child’s skeletal system, the appropriateness of weight training programs for prepubescent and pubescent individuals, and how to adapt resistance training safely for youth.

Addressing these questions relies on existing research, although certain misconceptions and misunderstandings continue to circulate. It’s essential to differentiate between resistance training and competitive sports such as Olympic weightlifting, powerlifting, and bodybuilding. Resistance training doesn’t necessitate lifting maximal or near-maximal weights, whereas these competitive sports inherently involve maximal resistances and hypertrophy development, which tends to be less pronounced in children compared to adults.

When evaluating the risk of injuries like skeletal muscle injuries, it’s vital to recognize that resistance training might not pose as significant a risk to children as perceived. Paradoxically, many sports that children engage in come with a higher risk of injury than resistance training. Research suggests that the benefits of well-designed and supervised resistance training programs for children far outweigh the associated risks.

Training Adaptations in Youth Resistance Training

Numerous respected organizations support the idea that children can derive substantial benefits from well-structured and supervised resistance training programs. These benefits encompass increased muscular strength, power, and local muscular endurance, reduced cardiovascular risk, improved sports and recreational performance, enhanced resistance to sports-related injuries, and improved psychological well-being, ultimately fostering lifelong exercise habits. However, it is crucial that these programs are appropriately designed and progressed, with a strong emphasis on correct exercise technique and competent supervision for safety and effectiveness.

Scientific research highlights that resistance training is highly effective in enhancing strength in children. Various meta-analyses reveal significant strength gains across different age groups. The strength improvements due to resistance training intensify as children mature, both in prepubertal and postpubertal stages. Although the absolute strength gains differ between prepubescent and adolescent individuals, relative strength gains (percent improvement) in prepubescents are equal to or greater than those seen in adolescents. Notably, numerous studies report no injuries resulting from resistance training in children and adolescents.

While early studies initially led to concerns that children might not experience strength or muscle size gains above their normal growth due to their immature hormonal systems, subsequent research refutes this. Resting testosterone and growth hormone levels increase with age in boys (from age 11 to 18), while no such increase occurs in girls. Nonetheless, both sexes exhibit a significant positive correlation between testosterone concentration and absolute muscle strength, indicating that hormonal changes play a role in increased strength across both sexes.

Furthermore, changes in resting hormonal concentrations, possibly as a response to resistance training, contribute to the increased strength observed in prepubertal and pubertal boys and girls. Training history may also affect hormonal changes and strength increases, as shown in the case of male Olympic weightlifters. While prepubescent children do not exhibit increased serum testosterone concentration after an exercise session, they still experience strength increases. Neural factors and other hormonal changes likely contribute to strength improvements in prepubescent and pubescent boys and girls.

Muscle Hypertrophy in Youth Resistance Training

In contrast to adults, youth resistance training primarily induces strength gains through neural adaptations, with muscle hypertrophy playing a relatively minor role in the process. While a few early studies suggested muscle size increases in preadolescents due to resistance training, the majority of such research did not reveal significant muscle hypertrophy in this age group. These studies often used skinfold measurements, which may lack the sensitivity to detect small yet meaningful changes in fat-free mass. More recent investigations utilizing dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) have shown modest but statistically significant increases in lean body mass among preadolescents and adolescents.

For instance, training boys and girls aged 8 to 10 years for 8 to 24 weeks resulted in lean body mass increases ranging from 5 to 11%. Training 9.7-year-old boys for eight weeks led to a 5% increase, while training 12-year-old boys and girls for the same duration resulted in 2% increases in lean body mass. In adolescents aged 15, increases in lean body mass of 4% (over 12 weeks) and 7.4% (over 16 weeks) were observed in overweight or obese individuals.

It’s reasonable to assume that lean body mass can increase in non-overweight youth as well. Importantly, these increases in lean body mass could surpass those due to normal growth in non-exercising children.

While muscle hypertrophy does occur in youth, neural adaptations remain crucial for strength gains, especially when significant hypertrophy does not transpire. Various other adaptations in muscles, nerves, and connective tissues of children may be at play. These include changes in muscle proteins (like myosin isoforms), recruitment patterns, and connective tissues, all contributing to improved strength, athletic performance, and injury prevention.

In males, the onset of puberty ushers in a considerable influence of testosterone on muscle size and strength without any formal training. Although younger boys may aspire to develop more defined, larger muscles similar to older adolescents, it is important to manage their expectations. Small gains in muscle mass beyond normal growth are feasible in younger children. However, significant muscle hypertrophy akin to that seen in adults is a more realistic goal for adolescents, especially as they progress through puberty. Since maturation rates differ among children, it’s crucial to tailor training programs individually, with a more conservative approach for younger boys and girls.

Motor Performance in Youth Resistance Training

Motor performance improvements occur with age in children, but resistance training can further enhance these abilities in both prepubescent children and adolescents. Various forms of resistance training, including free weights, weight training machines, and plyometrics, have been reported to positively influence motor performance. These benefits include increased short sprint ability, vertical jump ability, medicine ball throwing ability, and agility.

Resistance training alone has demonstrated its effectiveness in preadolescents and adolescents. For example, a study showed that countermovement jump height increased by 8% after eight weeks of nonlinear resistance training in 9.7-year-old boys and girls. Similarly, 14-year-old male soccer players who performed a 12-week linear periodization resistance training program exhibited significant increases in countermovement jump, 30 m sprint, and ball-kicking velocity. Importantly, these gains were greater than those observed in soccer players who did not engage in resistance training.

Plyometric training has also been shown to enhance motor performance in children. After 10 weeks of plyometric training, 11-year-old boys significantly increased their 30 m sprint and countermovement jump abilities. A study involving 13-year-old boy and girl soccer players reported significant improvements in countermovement jump, 10 m sprint, and agility test performance after an eight-week plyometric program.

The combination of traditional resistance training and plyometric training has produced substantial gains in motor performance as well. Complex training involving resistance training, plyometric jump drills, and medicine ball throwing drills led to significant increases in vertical jump, squat jump, and medicine ball throwing ability in 15-year-olds.

While not all studies show statistically significant increases in motor performance with resistance or plyometric training, the overall body of evidence indicates that both forms of training can significantly enhance both general and sport-specific motor performance in preadolescents and adolescents.

Bone Development in Youth Resistance Training

Youth resistance training can have a positive impact on bone mineral density in prepubescent and adolescent boys and girls. Moreover, it does not adversely affect linear growth in children and adolescents. It’s important to note that while some studies may not report an effect on bone mineral density in youth, it is possible that the mechanical loading of bone through resistance training may not have reached the necessary threshold to influence bone mineral density positively.

The degree of mechanical loading needed to affect bone mineral density is still uncertain. The mechanical loading experienced during resistance training is influenced by factors such as the choice of exercises, sets, repetitions, resistance levels, and the duration of training.

Increased bone density resulting from resistance training may contribute significantly to the observed prevention of injuries in young athletes. The prepubescent and adolescent years offer a window of opportunity to increase bone mineral density and expand cortical bone (compact bone) through physical activity. This is a vital consideration for long-term bone health because any gains in bone health during this time can help prevent conditions like osteoporosis in later life.

Furthermore, athletes who increase their bone mineral density during adolescence tend to experience less bone loss in their later years, even when their physical activity decreases. Thus, increasing bone mineral density beyond normal growth during childhood and adolescence can be an effective strategy to prevent osteoporosis later in life.

Detraining in Youth Resistance Training

The study of detraining in adolescents and prepubescent individuals is somewhat complex due to the natural growth processes that lead to increased strength and hypertrophy even without formal resistance training. Additionally, there is limited research examining detraining in children. Nonetheless, as in adults, detraining in children results in a loss of strength, causing it to regress toward the values observed in untrained individuals.

For instance, a complete cessation of resistance training (no weight training) for eight weeks in children who had previously engaged in 20 weeks of weight training led to a noticeable decline in strength. After this detraining period, there were no significant strength differences between the previously weight-trained children and the untrained children. It’s worth noting that the rate of strength loss during detraining may vary depending on the specific muscle group.

In an eight-week detraining period, children around the age of 10.8 years experienced a 28% decrease in leg extension strength and a 19% reduction in bench press strength. After detraining, leg extension strength was not significantly different from the control group of children who had not engaged in weight training. However, bench press strength remained significantly greater than that of the control group.

Motor performance losses during detraining, especially in short periods, may be minimal. For example, boys around the age of 13.3 years who had participated in eight weeks of weight training showed improvements in medicine ball throwing ability, vertical jump, standing long jump, and sprint ability. During a 12-week detraining period with no structured training, there were small but not statistically significant decreases in these motor performance tasks.

While there is some disagreement, it appears that a training frequency of one or two sessions per week can help maintain strength and power gains in prepubescent and adolescent individuals during brief detraining periods. This suggests that the response of children to complete detraining or reduced-volume detraining is similar to that of adults.

Gains in strength that children achieve from weight training are maintained only with ongoing training. Cessation of training for a three-month period can equalize strength between children who had previously undergone training and those who had not engaged in any weight training.

Injury Concerns in Youth Resistance Training

Injury concerns regarding children engaging in resistance training are relatively low, with the risk of injury being less than 1%. This rate is even lower than that observed in various other sports, such as American football, basketball, and soccer. In fact, resistance and plyometric training, or a combination of both, seem to play a protective role against sport-related injuries in adolescent athletes, and this benefit may extend to prepubescent athletes as well.

For instance, a study showed that high school male and female athletes who participated in resistance training had a lower injury rate of 26% compared to 72% in athletes who did not engage in resistance training. Furthermore, the rehabilitation time required for those injured was notably shorter for athletes who performed resistance training, with an average of two days compared to 4.8 days for non-resistance training athletes.

Preseason resistance and plyometric training have demonstrated potential in reducing the risk of knee injuries in young female athletes, a risk that is notably higher in comparison to their male counterparts. Female adolescent athletes who incorporated resistance training into their routines experienced an injury rate of 14% compared to 33% in those who did not. They also had fewer knee and ankle injuries.

It’s essential to highlight that overall, stronger athletes may be less prone to specific types of injury. Therefore, one of the goals of a resistance training program for child athletes should be to prepare them physically for their respective sports or activities.

Nonetheless, despite the potential positive effects of resistance training on injury prevention, the risk of acute and chronic injuries in children is a valid concern. A resistance training program designed for children should not primarily focus on lifting maximal or near-maximal resistances, as many injuries occur in this context. Instead, it should prioritize proper exercise technique since many injuries in resistance exercise are linked to improper execution. Many weight training injuries in children can be attributed to factors like poorly designed equipment, equipment that does not suit children, the use of excessive resistance, unsupervised access to the equipment, or a lack of qualified adult supervision.

Similar to adults, children require time to adapt to the stresses associated with resistance training. Therefore, training progression should be gradual. Children who find training challenging or do not enjoy resistance training at a particular age should not be compelled to participate. Various factors, including interest, growth, physical maturity, psychological maturity, and understanding, influence children’s perceptions of exercise training and their adherence to proper safety precautions. It’s crucial to consider all these factors on an individual basis to ensure a safe and effective resistance training program for children.

Acute Injuries in Youth Resistance Training

Acute injuries in the context of youth resistance training refer to single traumas that result in injuries. It’s important to note that while acute injuries can occur in children performing weight training, injuries related to the skeletal system, such as growth cartilage damage and bone fractures, are rare consequences of weight training.

• Accidental Injuries: Accidental injuries are the most common type of injuries in children during weight training sessions. These injuries account for 77% of all injuries sustained by children aged 8 to 13 during weight training. Notably, two-thirds of these injuries affect the hands and feet, often attributed to incidents like “dropping” or “pinching.” It’s worth emphasizing the significance of weight room safety when training children, especially in this age group, to prevent accidental injuries.
• Muscle Strains and Sprains: Muscle strains and sprains are common injuries across all age groups. These injuries account for varying percentages of total injuries, with the risk of strains and sprains increasing with age. Inadequate warm-up, attempting to lift excessively heavy weights for a given number of repetitions, and improper exercise technique can lead to strains and sprains. It’s crucial for children to understand that the recommended number of repetitions serves as a guideline and that they can perform fewer repetitions as needed. The incidence of muscle strains and sprains, like all types of injuries, can be minimized through proper safety precautions.
• Growth Cartilage Damage: Growth cartilage damage has historically been a concern for children engaging in weight training. Growth cartilage is present in three key sites: epiphyseal plates (growth plates) at the ends of long bones, the epiphysis (cartilage on joint surfaces), and apophyseal insertions (tendon insertions). Damage to epiphyseal plates can potentially impact linear bone growth, and the epiphyseal plates are most vulnerable during rapid growth phases in pubescence. After puberty, the epiphyseal plates ossify, signaling the end of longitudinal bone growth. Damage to other types of growth cartilage, such as the epiphysis and apophyseal insertions, may lead to issues like rough articular surfaces, joint pain, and an increased risk of tendon-to-bone separation, resulting in avulsion fractures. It has been suggested that muscle tendon tightness around joints increases during growth spurts, potentially impacting flexibility and stressing the growth cartilage.
• Epiphyseal Plate Fractures: The epiphyseal plate is susceptible to fractures in children due to its lack of ossification. While epiphyseal plate fractures have occurred in preadolescent and adolescent weight trainees, they are relatively rare. Most cases of epiphyseal plate fractures result from lifting near-maximal resistances, improper exercise technique, or a lack of qualified supervision. To reduce the risk of such fractures, it is advisable to discourage maximal or near-maximal lifts, especially in unsupervised settings. Additionally, emphasis should be placed on appropriate increases in resistance and proper exercise technique to ensure the safety of young resistance trainees.

Fractures, Lumbar Problems, and Growth Cartilage Damage in Youth Resistance Training

In youth resistance training, various types of injuries, including fractures, lumbar problems, and growth cartilage damage, can occur. These injuries need to be understood and managed to ensure the safety and well-being of children and adolescents engaged in strength training.

Fractures:

• In children and adolescents, fractures, particularly green stick fractures caused by bending the elastic shaft (metaphysis) of long bones, are more likely to occur due to the greater elasticity of the bones compared to adults. These fractures are more common between the ages of 12 and 14 in boys.
• The increased fracture rate during this age range is associated with a delay in cortical bone thickness and mineralization concerning linear growth.
• Controlling the resistance level for boys aged 12 to 14 during weight training is crucial to minimize the risk, and a similar approach may apply to girls aged 10 to 13.

Lumbar Problems:

• Low back problems, either from acute or chronic injuries, are frequently reported in adolescents engaged in weight training. In fact, low back injuries constitute 50% of all injuries in adolescent powerlifters.
• Lumbar issues can be caused by various factors, including lifting maximal or near-maximal weights, attempting excessive repetitions with a given resistance, and improper form in exercises like squats and deadlifts.
• Proper exercise technique, which minimizes stress on the low back, is essential in exercises that engage the lumbar region.
• Conditions like lordosis, characterized by anterior bending of the spine and often associated with flexed pelvis, can contribute to low back pain. Adolescents undergoing growth spurts may be more prone to developing lordosis.

Growth Cartilage Damage:

• Growth cartilage damage is a concern in young athletes engaged in resistance training, primarily due to repeated mechanical stresses during sports activities.
• Growth cartilage sites include the epiphyseal plates at the ends of long bones, the epiphysis on joint surfaces, and the apophyseal insertions where tendons connect to bones.
• Damage to the epiphyseal plates can affect linear bone growth, particularly during rapid growth phases in pubescence. After puberty, these plates ossify, signaling the end of longitudinal bone growth.
• Growth cartilage damage in young athletes may manifest as inflammation, irritated ossification centers, or conditions like osteochondritis and osteochondritis dissecans.
• Proper form, technique, and adherence to guidelines can significantly reduce the risk of growth cartilage injuries in youth resistance training. While these injuries are rare, they should be taken into account.

Program Considerations for Youth Resistance Training

Developing a resistance training program for prepubescent and adolescent children is a process that involves several key considerations to ensure safety, effectiveness, and individual needs.

Medical Examination:

• While a medical examination isn’t mandatory for apparently healthy children starting a resistance training program, it is recommended for youth displaying signs or symptoms of disease or with known health conditions.

Key Questions: Several questions need to be addressed before a child starts a resistance training program:

• Is the child both psychologically and physically prepared to participate in resistance training?
• What type of resistance training program is suitable for the child’s age, experience, and goals?
• Does the child understand the correct lifting techniques for each exercise?
• Do spotters comprehend the appropriate safety spotting techniques for each exercise?
• Does the child have a clear understanding of the safety considerations regarding the equipment used in the program?
• Does the resistance training equipment fit the child’s body properly?
• Does the child’s training program include aerobic and flexibility training to address overall fitness needs?
• Does the child participate in other sports or activities in conjunction with resistance training?

Total Training Stress:

• The overall training stress imposed on children must be considered. For example, in young baseball pitchers, in-season weight training has been associated with elbow pain. However, this pain is also correlated with the total number of pitches thrown and pitching arm fatigue. This suggests that total training stress, which includes resistance training and other activities, may be linked to specific types of injuries. Individual differences must be accounted for in program design.

Developmental Differences:

• Children of the same age can differ significantly in terms of physical and psychological development due to genetics, growth rates, and maturation. Children should not be viewed as miniature adults, and trainers should have realistic expectations.
• Consider various aspects of growth and development, including physical size, body mass, genetic potential, nutrition, and sleep patterns. Maturation, which encompasses physical, bone, reproductive, and psychological maturity, plays a crucial role in assessing a child’s readiness for resistance training.
• Physiological age, determined by the state of maturation, is vital in understanding a child’s functional capabilities and performance potential.

Strength Development and Growth:

• The timing of peak strength gains in children in relation to the growth spurt can vary between prepubescent males and females. In many cases, prepubescent girls experience their growth spurt and peak strength increases before or during it, while boys may peak in strength following the growth spurt.
• Peak strength gains are consistently greater in boys than in girls, regardless of the developmental stage at which they occur. This difference should be considered when setting training goals and conducting needs analyses for boys and girls.

Needs Analysis and Individualization in Youth Resistance Training

When developing a resistance training program for prepubescent and adolescent children, it is essential to conduct a needs analysis to identify their unique requirements and goals. Just as with adults, youth have diverse needs that encompass overall health and fitness, including cardiorespiratory fitness, flexibility, body composition, motor skills, strength, and power. These programs should be mindful of not being overly time-consuming or encroaching on a child’s recreational activities. It is crucial to recognize that prepubescent and adolescent children should not be expected to follow adult training programs or those designed for high-level adult athletes. To ensure the child’s commitment to the training program, it is often helpful to allow them to set their own goals and be mindful of their physical and psychological tolerance for the exercises.

Sensitivity to Individual Needs:

• Resistance training programs for children should be highly sensitive to the special needs that arise in each child. It’s essential to design a program tailored to each child’s specific requirements.
• Continuous monitoring of exercise techniques and safety precautions is critical for a safe and effective training experience.

Positive Outcomes of Resistance Training:

• A well-designed and supervised resistance training program can offer numerous positive physical and psychological benefits to children. It can help in developing an active lifestyle and good exercise behaviors that contribute to long-term health and well-being.
• Such training programs are particularly valuable in preparing children for the physical demands of sports, reducing the risk of sport-related injuries, and contributing to a healthier and more active life.

Upper-Body Strength:

• An alarming decline in upper-body strength has been observed in both boys and girls, highlighting the need for exercises focusing on upper-body development in resistance training programs.
• Upper-body strength is crucial not only for general fitness but also for many sport-specific tasks, even at recreational levels.

General Goals of Youth Resistance Training Programs:

• Youth resistance training programs can have several general goals, which may vary with the child’s age and individual circumstances:
  • Conditioning of all fitness components, including aerobic fitness, flexibility, and strength
  • Balanced selection of exercises for both upper and lower body development
  • Balanced choice of exercises targeting the agonist and antagonist muscle groups to promote muscle balance
  • Increased strength and power in specific muscle groups
  • Enhanced local muscular endurance in specific muscle groups
  • Improved motor performance, such as jumping, running, or throwing
  • Achieving an age-dependent total body weight and muscle hypertrophy
  • Reducing body fat

Individualization and Adaptation:

• Goals of resistance training programs may change with a child’s age and their involvement in different sports or activities.
• Individualization is key, considering factors like progress, desire to train, prior or current injuries, duration of resistance training experience, and other personal circumstances.
• Progression must be tailored to each child’s specific needs and should be aligned with their physiological adaptations and fitness goals.

Program Progression in Youth Resistance Training

Program progression in youth resistance training is a critical aspect of ensuring safe, effective, and age-appropriate exercise routines for children and adolescents. This progression should be gradual, allowing for adaptation to the training stress, the development of exercise tolerance, and the mastery of proper exercise techniques. It plays a pivotal role in enhancing safety, enjoyment, and the overall effectiveness of resistance training programs for youth.

Individualized Progression:

• One key principle in program progression is the individualization of training. Children of the same age or training experience can have vastly different abilities, physiologies, and psychological maturity. Therefore, progression should always be tailored to each child’s unique needs and circumstances.

Progression Across Age Groups:

• While resistance training can be safely performed by very young children, it’s essential to emphasize that not all children must engage in resistance training at a young age. Since physiological and psychological maturity can vary significantly among youth of the same age, progression guidelines need to be adapted to suit individual needs and training conditions.
• Regardless of a child’s age, the training environment should foster both safety and enjoyment. It should also provide visual aids like posters, goal charts, and pictures to reflect the goals and expectations of the resistance training program, creating a motivating atmosphere.

Progression of Resistance (Intensity):

• Training intensity, or the resistance used during exercises, should progress gradually. This typically involves small increments of 5 to 10% in resistance. This gradual increase ensures safe and effective progress.
• Free weights can easily accommodate small weight plate increments. However, some weight training machines may have resistance increments that are too large for smooth progression, especially for youth as they become stronger.
• Some weight machines come with built-in small resistance increases, while others can be adapted for small resistance increments by using specially designed weights (usually 2.5 lb or 5 lb) that can be added and removed from the machine’s weight stack.
• On machines designed for children, the initial resistance and increases are typically age-appropriate.
• For cases where the starting resistance on adult machines is too great for a child to perform even one repetition, alternatives such as free weights, body-weight exercises, or partner-resisted exercises can be employed for the same muscle group until the child becomes strong enough to use the machine effectively.

In essence, the progression in youth resistance training programs should be thoughtful, individualized, gradual, and aligned with each child’s specific needs and progress. This approach ensures a safe, effective, and enjoyable resistance training experience, fostering a commitment to lifelong fitness and health.

Plyometrics in Youth Resistance Training:

Plyometric exercises, which focus on the stretch-shortening cycle, can be safely incorporated into resistance training programs for preadolescents and adolescents. These exercises enhance functional abilities and reduce sport-specific injuries in young individuals. Plyometrics training aligns with activities that children often engage in during play, such as hopscotch, skipping, jumping, and jumping rope. When properly controlled, plyometrics training is a safe and effective method for children.

A study suggests that plyometric training is effective for children between the ages of 5 and 14. It can enhance sprinting, jumping, kicking distance, balance, and agility. An effective plyometrics program for youth typically includes two sessions per week, featuring 50 to 60 foot contacts per session and a duration of at least eight weeks.

It’s essential to control the training volume and intensity in plyometrics for safety and effectiveness. While plyometrics training offers many benefits for young individuals, overexertion, such as performing excessive squat jumps, can lead to injuries like exertional rhabdomyolysis. Thus, a well-structured and supervised program that gradually increases intensity and volume ensures the safety and success of plyometrics training for youth.

Strength and Power Progression:

Progressing strength and power in youth resistance training programs involves gradually increasing training volume and intensity or introducing variations in exercises. Initially, low-volume and low-intensity programs can lead to fitness gains. A well-organized and supervised basic training program for children can be as short as 20 minutes per training session. For children aged 8-11 years, two sessions per week can lead to significant strength gains and changes in body composition.

During the initial training period, a higher number of repetitions (13 to 15) per set may lead to greater gains in strength and local muscular endurance than lower numbers (6 to 8) of repetitions per set. The number of sets does not need to reach failure to produce substantial fitness improvements, reducing training stress and promoting proper exercise technique.

A suggested progression for youth programs aiming to increase maximal strength is outlined, categorizing children into novice, intermediate, and advanced levels based on their resistance training experience. It includes recommendations for exercises and variations in training variables.

For power training, a different approach is needed, focusing on multijoint exercises, lower percentages of 1RM, and fewer repetitions per set. This allows for fast movement velocities and prevents fatigue from affecting exercise technique or slowing movement velocity. Sets of power training exercises should not be carried to failure to avoid injury and significant slowing of movement velocity. Learning proper exercise technique and gradual increases in training volume and intensity are crucial for successful power training.

Periodization in Youth Resistance Training:

Periodization, a method widely used by adult athletes and fitness enthusiasts to vary training volume and intensity, can also be applied to prepubescent and adolescent training. Periodization has been found to optimize long-term training gains in children, reduce boredom, and minimize the risk of overuse injuries.

While there is less research on the effects of periodization in youth compared to adults, both linear and nonlinear periodization have been successfully used in prepubescent and adolescent training. Linear periodization involves gradually increasing resistance or intensity, while nonlinear periodization involves variations in training volume and intensity. Periodization can be applied by modifying resistance percentages, RM training zones, the number of sets per exercise, the selection of exercises for the same muscle groups, and the inclusion of power-type exercises.

Programs can also be adjusted based on children’s lifting experience and their tolerance for the training. Careful monitoring of the child’s ability to tolerate the exercise stress is essential, and feedback from children regarding their concerns and fears should be encouraged. Trainers should use common sense in providing exercise variation, active recovery periods, total rest from training, and individualized programs to address children’s needs. It’s important not to assume that more training is always better, and overestimating a child’s exercise tolerance can reduce their enjoyment of participation. Program designers should create programs that reflect the child’s developmental stage and specific requirements, and all adults involved in the program should prioritize providing a positive and protective environment for the children participating. Children should be given the freedom to choose whether or not to participate in any exercise or sports program.

Avoiding Copying Elite Athlete Programs:

It’s crucial for prepubescent, pubescent, and young adolescent individuals not to perform resistance training programs designed for collegiate or professional athletes. These programs are often tailored to mature, highly experienced athletes and may involve training intensities and volumes that are inappropriate and potentially harmful for children. Attempting to force children into elite athlete programs can lead to overuse or acute injuries.

Sample Sessions for Youth Resistance Training:

This section outlines two sample sessions for youth resistance training, each with specific exercises and variations. The first session requires little or no weight training equipment and can be modified based on the child’s experience and available equipment. The second session is designed for novice child lifters and can be performed using free weights or typical weight training machines. Both sessions are intended to provide a total-body workout.

Workouts Using Little Equipment:

This session focuses on exercises that utilize the child’s body weight, self-resistance (one muscle group against another), resistance provided by another child, or another child’s body weight . It can be executed as a circuit, moving from one exercise to the next, or in a set-repetition manner with rest between sets. The level of resistance can be adjusted to increase or decrease the difficulty of an exercise. For instance, the difficulty of push-ups can be modified by doing knee push-ups for less resistance or placing the feet on a chair for more resistance. Exercises that involve self-resistance and partner resistance should be dynamic, with each concentric and eccentric repetition phase lasting about 5 seconds, resulting in 10 seconds per repetition.

Exercises in this session can also be replaced or modified. For example, self-resisted arm curls could be substituted with partner-resisted arm curls using a towel. The primary goal is to engage all major muscle groups with little or no equipment, providing resistance training opportunities.

Session Using Equipment:

This session is designed for novice child lifters and can be executed with free weights or typical weight training machines (see table 10.7). The session prioritizes strength and can be performed in a circuit or set-repetition protocol. It’s essential to ensure that if adult-size machines are used, children are properly fitted to the equipment to guarantee the correct exercise technique. Initially, resistance should be set at a level where the child can complete at least the minimum recommended number of repetitions with proper form. As the child progresses and can achieve the maximum recommended repetitions, the resistance should be increased so they can perform the minimum recommended repetitions per set.

All exercises in this session should be performed in a controlled manner to prevent injury, promote the learning of proper exercise technique, and avoid equipment damage. Correct exercise and spotting techniques should be consistently emphasized by trainers for all exercises.

Equipment Modification and Organizational Difficulties in Youth Resistance Training:

When designing and implementing resistance training programs for children, several factors, including equipment modification and organizational challenges, should be considered:

1. Equipment Modification: Children often require more individualized help than adults, and trainers may need to modify equipment to accommodate their smaller body sizes. This can include using pads or blocks to fit adult machines to the children’s bodies. It’s essential to ensure proper equipment fit to allow for correct exercise technique and prevent injuries. Additionally, equipment may need frequent checks and adjustments as children grow.
2. Organizational Problems: Organizational issues can arise when training children, such as accommodating individual needs in a group setting. Timed workouts should consider the time needed for equipment modifications, especially when many children are training, and modifications or adjustments are needed on an individual basis.
3. Safety and Technique: Safety and proper exercise technique should always take precedence over maintaining desired rest periods. Organizational challenges must be addressed without compromising safety, technique, or the effectiveness of the training session.
4. Equipment Fit: Proper equipment fit is crucial when using resistance training machines. Most machines are designed for adults, and children may not fit them properly. Ill-fitting machines can compromise technique, range of motion, and safety. Machines specifically designed for children can be a better fit.
5. Modifications for Safety: If equipment does not fit a child properly, simple alterations, such as additional seat pads or raising the seat, may make it safe to use. Blocks under the feet can help with balance if the seat is raised. It’s essential to ensure that modifications do not slide during exercise to prevent injuries.
6. Program Philosophy: Formal programs, especially those in schools and health clubs, should have a clear and open program philosophy. This philosophy should be communicated through signs, wall charts, handouts, and program materials to promote a positive attitude toward weight training for prepubescents and adolescents. The program’s philosophy should encourage training consistency, proper technique, total conditioning and fitness, and progress in various aspects of total fitness.
7. Promotion of Program Philosophy: The program’s philosophy can be promoted through various means, such as posting age-related instructions for children, using posters and pictures showing proper resistance training techniques, and using charts, contests, and awards to encourage key principles. The communication should be adapted for children to prevent intimidation, confusion, or misunderstandings.