Training Programs and Movement Analysis

Training programs are essential tools used by competitive athletes to maximize their training effectiveness and enhance performance. However, these programs can also benefit noncompetitive and recreational athletes by increasing enjoyment and reducing the risk of injury or overtraining. Evaluating the effectiveness of an endurance training program necessitates regular testing. While laboratory testing is an option, field testing is often more practical for both coaches and athletes. Ideally, these tests should encompass movement analysis, aerobic endurance, and muscle endurance. This section delves into various common testing protocols and methods for analyzing the data gathered during these testing sessions.

It’s crucial to emphasize that conducting tests for the sake of testing without a clear purpose won’t provide meaningful guidance for coaches and athletes. The information collected during these tests should serve as feedback to the athletes. Unfortunately, there is a common pitfall where coaches and exercise physiologists conduct demanding tests but fail to communicate the results effectively to the athletes. The information garnered from testing sessions should be promptly shared with athletes and utilized to drive adjustments in their training programs.

Before conducting any tests, it is essential to ensure that the testing equipment is correctly calibrated. All equipment used for testing should be adequately maintained and calibrated according to the manufacturer’s recommendations. Testing with equipment that is either not calibrated or incorrectly calibrated will yield unreliable and invalid data. Consequently, if the analysis of a training program’s effectiveness relies on flawed data, the results will be compromised.

Movement Analysis and Biomechanics

Endurance sports are not typically associated with high technicality like golf, baseball, or tennis. Nonetheless, proper movement during both training and competition in endurance sports significantly impacts performance and overall health. Biomechanics is the study of human motion concerning physics, kinematics, and mechanics. While endurance sports may appear less technical, repetitive movements, executed hundreds or thousands of times during training sessions, require proper mechanics to optimize performance and prevent injury. Various tools and techniques are available for movement analysis, including a well-trained eye, video analysis, computers, and specialized biomechanics equipment such as pressure sensors, force plates, and three-dimensional computer motion analysis programs.

Each endurance athlete has a unique physical build with distinct strengths, weaknesses, and asymmetries that dictate their individual movement style. However, within each sport, there are generally accepted proper movement patterns that are deemed effective and conducive to optimal performance. For instance, during running, it’s recommended that the foot lands almost underneath the knee to reduce braking movement during each stride and alleviate stress on the musculoskeletal system. In cycling, proper mechanics entail the knee and foot traveling in a vertical path, reducing stress on the knee joint. When swimming, ideal mechanics result in smoother motion through the water with less drag and less strain on the shoulder joint.

Coaches and athletes can acquire the skill of analyzing motion by observing correct form and mechanics within their sport. This can be done either in person or by reviewing video footage of top athletes. However, it’s important to note that even elite athletes might not always employ optimal biomechanics and can achieve success despite their technique. Variations among athletes are natural, but coaches should be able to evaluate an athlete’s biomechanics and suggest drills and corrections to help them improve. Video recording is often used to record athletes’ techniques, allowing for a slowed-down analysis that may reveal subtle details that are imperceptible to the naked eye. Coaches can review these videos with their athletes to reinforce effective movement patterns and identify areas for improvement.

For athletes without access to personal coaches, self-evaluation is possible with the help of a partner who can operate a video camera. Many computers come equipped with free or low-cost video analysis software. More advanced software, such as Dartfish technology, offers comprehensive video analysis capabilities, including the synchronization of multiple camera views, the ability to draw angles, and the option to add comments or written text to videos. Specialized equipment like pressure sensors and three-dimensional imaging systems may be available at sports medicine facilities, medical institutions, universities, and research centers. These tools can be employed by biomechanists and trained clinical staff to conduct a more thorough examination of an athlete’s movements.

Regrettably, many endurance athletes and coaches overlook the potential of biomechanical analysis as a valuable tool for modifying or improving an athlete’s current mechanics. The prevailing belief is that endurance athletes should just focus on improving their fitness and not concern themselves with poor mechanics since they naturally move the way they do. Although the differences resulting from improved mechanics may be subtle, they are highly effective in reducing injuries and enhancing performance. Furthermore, movement analysis can help determine the types of sport-specific and supplementary training, such as resistance training, that can enhance an athlete’s performance. A comprehensive analysis should consider the muscle groups involved (prime movers and stabilizers), the type of muscle action (concentric, eccentric, isometric, or a combination), the velocity of contraction and movement, the range of motion of the joints, and the energy system used for energy delivery (immediate, short-term, or long-term energy system). All these aspects should be taken into account before designing training programs and exercises aimed at enhancing an individual’s capabilities and performance.

The section includes a worksheet that athletes can use for their own movement analysis. Athletes are encouraged to complete this form periodically to track changes and adaptations in their movements that occur with regular training. The recommended practice is to fill out the form every 4 to 8 weeks after similar workouts, with a focus on repetitive activities like running, cycling, and swimming.

Field Testing

Field testing is an integral component of assessing an athlete’s progress beyond actual competition. It serves several essential purposes:

1. Adjust Training Loads: Field testing helps determine how to adjust an athlete’s training loads. It provides valuable feedback to athletes, particularly during extended training periods. Some athletes do not compete frequently, or they may have limited annual competitions. Routine testing ensures that the training they undergo enhances their fitness and potential for optimal performance.
2. Building Confidence: Evaluating performance changes from one training cycle to another contributes to athletes’ confidence. It is one of the simplest ways for athletes to gain a mental edge when they compete. Evidence of performance improvement serves as a motivational tool, convincing athletes that the training program is effective, even if they are not competing regularly. Comparisons can also be made to track fitness and performance levels from season to season and from year to year.
3. Frequency and Comfort: Field tests can be performed more frequently than laboratory tests, and athletes often find them more comfortable because they take place in the athlete’s natural environment. Field testing can be an opportunity for athletes to practice pacing strategies, nutrition, equipment, and other factors they need to experiment with before actual competition.

Testing Guidelines

For optimal effectiveness, field tests should ideally be conducted in the environment where the athlete competes. For instance, a triathlete may want to evaluate swimming, cycling, and running progress at the end of each rest cycle, usually every 3 to 6 weeks. However, it may not always be feasible to find a suitable location for open water swimming tests. In such cases, the tests can be conducted in a swimming pool.

Ideally, field tests should be between one-third and the full race distance. For example, a standard field test for a triathlete preparing for a 1,500-meter swim would range from 500 to 1,500 meters. These field tests can be performed at specific constrained performance levels, based on heart rate or perceived effort, for a given distance or time. The duration of field tests can vary based on the athlete’s focus and may range from as short as 5 seconds to as long as 1 hour.

To ensure repeatability in retests, it is essential to note certain factors before conducting field tests. These factors include the number of rest days taken before the test, warm-up procedures, nutrition intake before and during the test, and any other factors that may influence future tests. Each field test should be conducted under similar, if not identical, conditions.

Setting a consistent course is vital, especially for testing sports like rowing or cross-country skiing, where water and snow conditions may vary. The environmental conditions, particularly variations in wind, must be considered when testing cyclists. Selecting a stable route that is not subject to significant wind variations is crucial.

Effort levels during field tests need to be considered as well. Although all-out efforts might seem like the best way to gauge improvements in fitness, they may not always be the best option. Athletes may find it challenging to achieve maximal efforts outside of actual competition due to a lack of motivation. Submaximal efforts, performed at a predetermined intensity level, are often more valid for field tests as they are repeatable and reliable. These submaximal efforts can be used as a benchmark for future tests.

Modern technology has enhanced field testing with tools such as wireless heart rate monitors and GPS units. These tools allow athletes to monitor speed and heart rate and subsequently download the data for further analysis after the test. In cycling, portable power meters have proven effective for assessing the sustained power during field tests. The advantage of using these tools is that they provide valuable information that can be compared season after season, enabling athletes and coaches to track progress effectively.

Testing Types and Intensity Levels

One critical aspect to consider in athletic training is how to classify exercise intensity in workouts. Time trials conducted in field tests offer a practical approach to assessing an athlete’s current ability and establishing personalized intensity zones. These tests are cost-effective and convenient and mimic what athletes encounter in actual workouts and races, making them a valuable source of information. Time-trial field tests essentially involve racing against the clock to record various intensity-related data.

These time trials should be performed periodically, with initial tests at the start of a training year and subsequent tests every 12 to 20 weeks. After completing the testing phase, an athlete’s intensity zones can be determined. There are four distinct intensity zones:

1. Easy Intensity: For easy intensity zones, no complex calculations are required. Instead, perceived exertion is a valuable tool for athletes to gauge the right effort level. This level should feel similar to walking, and the descriptions provided in the table can help athletes understand what easy intensity should feel like. Ratings of perceived exertion range from 1 (extremely easy, like leisurely walking) to 10 (extremely hard, like the end of a short race or a V˙O2max test). In the easy zone, the intensity should fall within a rating of 1 to 3, and perceived exertion serves as the primary means of monitoring this intensity zone.
2. Aerobic Intensity: Perceived exertion can be used for the more intense zones, although more precise measures are often more effective. The specific measurements used to determine intensity zones for each athlete can be found in tables accompanying time-trial tests. These tables may include average speeds, paces, power outputs, or heart rates from the athlete’s time-trial field tests. These measurements help establish the athlete’s aerobic intensity zone.
3. Anaerobic Intensity: Anaerobic intensity zones can be determined using precise measures as well. Tables accompanying the time-trial tests outline which measurements to use, such as heart rates, power outputs, or paces. These data help establish the athlete’s anaerobic intensity zone.
4. Race Intensity: Establishing the race intensity zone follows a similar process, involving precise measurements from time-trial tests. The specific measurements vary based on the athlete’s discipline and sport, providing valuable data to determine the athlete’s race intensity zone.

Cycling Tests

Cycling tests play a vital role in assessing an athlete’s performance, and they offer valuable data for monitoring progress. Two types of cycling tests are discussed: an outdoor 10-mile time trial and an indoor 30-minute time trial.

Outdoor 10-Mile Time Trial:

• Equipment: This test requires a power meter or cycling computer and a heart rate monitor.
• Course Selection: Select a safe course free from potential interruptions such as traffic lights and poor road conditions. Ensure that this course can be used for future tests, allowing for meaningful comparisons.
• Procedure:
  1. Athletes warm up with a 15-minute ride, with the last 3 minutes at their projected test intensity. The warm-up should conclude at the starting point of the 10-mile time trial.
  2. Riders ease into a 2-minute easy ride.
  3. Athletes complete a 10-mile time trial, pushing their limits to cover the distance as quickly as possible.
  4. If a power meter is used, athletes record their average power output for the 10-mile trial.
  5. Heart rate data is collected from the heart rate monitor, noting the average heart rate during the 10-mile ride.
  6. The average speed achieved for the 10-mile distance is recorded using a cycling computer or power meter.
  7. Athletes document their test scores, which include their average power output (if using a power meter), average heart rate, and average speed (e.g., 211 watts, 162 bpm, and 21.3 mph).
  8. After completing the time trial, athletes cool down with a 10 to 15-minute easy ride.

Indoor 30-Minute Time Trial:

• Equipment: This test necessitates a power meter or cycling computer equipped with a rear wheel pickup to measure distance and a heart rate monitor.
• Test Setup: Athletes perform this test on an indoor trainer.
• Procedure:
  1. Athletes warm up with a 15-minute ride, with the last 3 minutes at their projected test intensity.
  2. Riders take a 2-minute easy ride.
  3. Athletes embark on a 30-minute time trial, pushing themselves to their limits throughout the entire duration.
  4. Athletes with a power meter record their average power output for the 30-minute trial.
  5. Heart rate data is recorded using the heart rate monitor, noting the average heart rate during the 30-minute ride.
  6. Athletes document their test scores, which include their average power output (if using a power meter) and average heart rate (e.g., 191 watts, 157 bpm).
  7. Following the time trial, athletes cool down with a 10 to 15-minute easy ride.

Cycling tests like these are valuable for assessing an athlete’s performance, establishing baseline metrics, and tracking progress over time. They offer insights into an athlete’s power output, heart rate response, and speed, which can guide training adjustments and provide clear markers of improvement.

Running Three-Mile Time Trial

Running tests are crucial for assessing a runner’s performance, establishing baseline metrics, and tracking progress over time. The three-mile time trial is a common test that provides insights into an athlete’s pace and heart rate response. Below are the details of this test.

Equipment:

• Pace monitor or GPS (optional)
• Heart rate monitor

Course Selection:

• Select a three-mile course that is safe and free of obstacles that may require runners to stop.
• Choose a course that can be used for future tests to allow for meaningful comparisons.
• The test can be conducted on a track, with runners using the inside lane.
• Alternatively, it can be performed on a treadmill set at a 1 percent incline.

Procedure:

1. Athletes warm up by running for 15 minutes, with the last 2 minutes at their projected test intensity. The warm-up should conclude at the starting point of the three-mile time trial.
2. Athletes walk for 2 minutes to transition from the warm-up to the test.
3. Athletes then run a three-mile time trial, aiming to cover the distance as quickly as possible.
4. If a pace monitor is used, athletes note their average pace for the three miles.
5. For those not using a pace monitor, athletes should record their total time for the three miles and calculate their pace in minutes per mile. For example, if an athlete completes the three miles in 21 minutes and 30 seconds (21:30), their pace is calculated as 7 minutes and 10 seconds (7:10) per mile.
6. Athletes record their average heart rate during the three-mile run using the heart rate monitor.
7. Test scores should include the athlete’s average pace and average heart rate (e.g., 7:10 per mile, 173 beats per minute).
8. After completing the time trial, athletes walk for 10 to 15 minutes to cool down.

Running tests like the three-mile time trial are valuable tools for assessing running performance, understanding an athlete’s pacing strategy, and monitoring heart rate response. This information aids in training adjustments and provides clear markers of improvement for runners.

Swimming 500-Yard Time Trial

Swimming tests are essential for assessing a swimmer’s performance, understanding pacing, and monitoring heart rate response. The 500-yard time trial is a common swimming test that provides valuable data for swimmers. Here’s a comprehensive description of this test:

Equipment:

• Optional heart rate monitor

Procedure:

1. Athletes begin with a 10-minute warm-up swim, with the last 2 minutes swum at the projected test intensity.
2. After the warm-up, athletes take a 1-minute rest.
3. Athletes then swim a 500-yard time trial, aiming to cover the distance as quickly as possible.
4. Athletes note their time for the 500 yards and calculate their pace in minutes per 100 yards. For example, if an athlete completes the 500 yards in 8 minutes and 45 seconds (8:45), their pace is calculated as 1 minute and 45 seconds (1:45) per 100 yards.
5. If athletes can wear a heart rate monitor while swimming, they should record their average heart rate for the 500 yards. If a heart rate monitor is not available, athletes can take their carotid or radial pulse for 10 seconds immediately after finishing the 500 yards and then multiply the 10-second pulse count by 6 to estimate their heart rate in beats per minute. For example, 24 beats in 10 seconds would estimate a heart rate of 144 beats per minute (24 beats × 6).
6. Athletes record their test scores, which should include the athlete’s average pace and average heart rate (e.g., 1:45 per 100 yards, 144 bpm).
7. Following the time trial, athletes swim very easily for 5 to 10 minutes to cool down.

By conducting the 500-yard time trial, swimmers can gauge their performance, determine their swimming pace, and understand their heart rate response. This information is valuable for setting training intensity levels, tracking progress, and achieving training goals. Additionally, swimmers can use their own results to calculate their personalized intensity zones for swim training.

An effective pace strategy for anaerobic intensity sets is to begin at the lower end of the intensity zone and progressively increase effort, ensuring that the set is completed with a strong finish. Athletes must pace themselves during anaerobic intensity intervals, aiming to maintain or improve their performance throughout the set.

Avoiding overexertion in the initial intervals of a set is crucial to maximize training benefits. 

Aerobic Endurance Measures and Analyses

Aerobic endurance is a vital aspect of training for most endurance athletes, as it plays a significant role in their competitive performance. To assess and optimize aerobic endurance, athletes and coaches rely on various measures and analyses, with the V˙O2max test being one of the most crucial. This section provides an extensive overview of aerobic endurance testing and the associated analyses.

V˙O2max Test:

• V˙O2max, or maximum aerobic power, measures the body’s ability to utilize oxygen for energy production.
• Oxygen consumption (V˙O2) values are derived from the calculation: V˙O2 = cardiac output (Q) × (A-V) O2 difference.
• Cardiac output (Q) is determined as the product of heart rate and stroke volume.
• The highest rate of oxygen consumption reached during a test is defined as V˙O2max, usually indicating the athlete’s peak capacity.
• A typical V˙O2max test comprises a warm-up, followed by a progressive test to exhaustion lasting 6 to 12 minutes.
• Common criteria to determine test completion include reaching volitional fatigue, reaching a V˙O2 plateau, and achieving a respiratory quotient (VCO2/V˙O2) greater than 1.10.
• Ventilatory threshold (VT) is often identified during the test, serving as an indicator of the maximum sustainable effort an athlete can maintain.

Energy Expenditure Calculation:

• Indirect calorimetry, which measures oxygen uptake, can be used to calculate energy expenditure during exercise.
• These calculations can determine total calorie expenditure and the utilization of carbohydrates and fats as energy sources at different workloads.
• Athletes can use this information to manage their nutrition and pacing strategies, especially in long-distance events where glycogen depletion is a concern.

Lactate Profile Testing:

• Lactate profile testing is employed to analyze an athlete’s lactate response to incremental exercise.
• This test helps identify the lactate threshold, an essential marker of aerobic performance.
• Lactate profile testing can be performed with or without concurrent measurements of oxygen consumption (V˙O2).
• Key factors for reliable results include consistent testing protocols, 4-minute stages, and monitoring heart rate, rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and blood lactate at each stage.
• The lactate threshold indicates the intensity at which lactate levels increase sharply.
• The primary training goal is to shift the lactate threshold to occur at higher workloads, indicating improved aerobic performance.

Implications of Endurance Test Results

Endurance testing is a fundamental aspect of an athlete’s training regimen. These tests yield valuable insights, including the establishment of training zones. The way training zones are categorized can vary, and coaches and athletes employ multiple methods to define these zones, such as heart rate ranges, perceived exertion (RPE) ranges, and power or pace ranges.

The clear definition and communication of training zones are crucial. It aids in preventing confusion, especially when athletes compare their training programs with others or encounter recommendations in various sources, such as magazines. A unified understanding of training intensity zones facilitates effective communication between coaches and athletes, ensuring that everyone is on the same page regarding the training program’s goals and expectations.

Several advantages and disadvantages come with each method for measuring training intensity. The choice of method depends on the athlete’s individual preferences and needs. The primary goal is to establish a common terminology for communication between coaches and athletes. This ensures that both parties are aligned in terms of the training program’s objectives and execution.

In this way, athletes and coaches can work together effectively, maximize the benefits of the training program, and optimize performance in endurance sports. By understanding and implementing these training intensity zones correctly, athletes can achieve their goals and maintain clarity throughout their training journey.