Principles of Resistance Training

The section explores the realm of resistance training, also referred to as strength or weight training, which has risen to prominence as one of the most favored forms of exercise for improving physical fitness and conditioning athletes. It’s essential to understand the terminology that encompasses this form of exercise. The terms “strength training,” “weight training,” and “resistance training” are often used interchangeably to describe an exercise that involves the body’s musculature opposing an external force, typically provided by equipment. However, the definitions can vary slightly. “Resistance training” and “strength training” encompass a broad spectrum of training methods, including body weight exercises, the use of elastic bands, plyometrics, and hill running. On the other hand, “weight training” typically refers specifically to resistance training using free weights or weight training machines.

The ever-increasing number of resistance training facilities in health clubs, high schools, and colleges underscores the popularity of this physical conditioning approach. Participants in resistance training programs have high expectations for several health and fitness benefits, including increased strength, enhanced fat-free mass, reduced body fat, and improved physical performance, whether in sports or daily life activities. Moreover, these programs can lead to other health advantages such as changes in resting blood pressure, blood lipid profiles, and insulin sensitivity. A well-structured and consistently executed resistance training program can yield all these benefits, with an emphasis on one or more specific goals. Strength and muscle hypertrophy, the increase in muscle size, are sought after by fitness enthusiasts, recreational weight trainers, and athletes participating in resistance training. Various modalities (isokinetic, variable resistance, isometric, plyometric) and training systems or programs (combinations of sets, repetitions, and resistances) can facilitate these objectives, as long as an effective training stimulus is provided to the neuromuscular system. The choice of training system’s efficacy relies on its appropriateness and proper inclusion within the comprehensive exercise program. The continuity of fitness progress is contingent on maintaining an effective training stimulus, involving increasing the training’s difficulty (progressive overload) and incorporating periodized programs.

Athletes and fitness enthusiasts anticipate that improvements in strength and power from resistance training programs will translate into better sports or daily life performance. This improvement in motor performance, such as sprinting, throwing, or climbing stairs, can significantly enhance performance across various games, sports, and daily activities. The extent of improvement is reliant on the program’s specificity, with multijoint exercises exhibiting a greater carryover to vertical jump abilities compared to single-joint exercises.

Additionally, body composition alteration is a common goal for many fitness enthusiasts and athletes engaged in resistance training. Typically, the aim is to reduce body fat and increase fat-free mass, though some individuals also seek changes in total body weight. Changes in body composition, along with improved physical performance, also come with health benefits. Weight training can reduce the risk of disease by contributing to health adaptations. For instance, a decrease in resting blood pressure is associated with a lowered risk of cardiovascular disease. Resistance training has the potential to effectuate changes in body composition, strength, power, muscle hypertrophy, and motor performance while also offering various health benefits. Achieving optimal results in these areas necessitates adherence to fundamental principles that apply regardless of the type of resistance modality or the training system.

Ultimately, different individuals have distinct objectives for their resistance training programs. Bodybuilders primarily aim for increased fat-free mass and decreased body fat percentage, whereas other athletes may target enhanced power or motor performance. Fitness enthusiasts often aspire to achieve the aforementioned goals, alongside health benefits like reduced blood pressure and positive adjustments to the blood lipid profile. Resistance training caters to a wide range of goals, making it a versatile and impactful form of exercise for diverse populations.

Maximizing the Impact of Resistance Training

This section delves into the nuances of resistance training programs, emphasizing the significance of their efficacy and proper inclusion within the comprehensive exercise prescription or program.

One fundamental principle underpinning the effectiveness of resistance training is the notion of the training stimulus. Fitness gains and improvements will persist as long as this stimulus remains effective. In essence, this entails the continuous need to increase the difficulty of the training, known as progressive overload. Furthermore, periodized programs are pivotal in ensuring that the stimulus remains challenging and propels individuals towards their fitness goals.

Athletes and fitness enthusiasts participating in resistance training programs generally expect that the gains in strength and power will translate into enhanced performance in sports or daily life activities. The enhancement of motor performance, such as the ability to sprint, throw objects, or climb stairs, ultimately leads to better performance across various games, sports, and daily activities. The extent to which resistance training facilitates carryover to specific physical tasks is contingent on the program’s specificity. For instance, exercises involving multiple joints, like clean pulls from the knees, exhibit a more substantial carryover to vertical jump ability compared to isolated single-joint exercises like knee extensions and leg curls. These exercises, whether multi-joint or single-joint, contribute to increased strength in muscle groups like the quadriceps and hamstrings. However, the biomechanical movement and muscle fiber recruitment patterns align more closely with most sporting or daily life activities in multijoint exercises, resulting in a higher degree of specificity and carryover. In general, multijoint exercises demonstrate superior specificity and carryover to motor performance tasks compared to single-joint exercises.

Alterations in body composition, particularly a reduction in body fat and an increase in fat-free mass, constitute a primary objective for fitness enthusiasts and athletes engaged in resistance training. These transformations have not only been linked to enhanced physical performance but also yield various health benefits. Reduced resting blood pressure, for instance, is associated with a decreased risk of cardiovascular disease. The success of any program in achieving specific adaptations hinges on the effectiveness of the training stimulus it provides. All the aforementioned changes can be accomplished through a properly designed and executed resistance training program.

Resistance training has the potential to bring about desirable changes in body composition, strength, power, muscle hypertrophy, and motor performance, while also conferring an array of health benefits. To maximize changes in these areas, individuals need to adhere to fundamental principles that apply universally, irrespective of the resistance modality or the type of training system or program.

It is important to acknowledge that different individuals have distinct objectives when engaging in resistance training programs. Bodybuilders, for instance, predominantly aim to increase fat-free mass while reducing body fat percentages. Other athletes might prioritize improvements in power or motor performance, while fitness enthusiasts often aspire to achieve a combination of these objectives along with health benefits like reduced blood pressure and favorable alterations to the blood lipid profile. Resistance training serves a wide range of goals, making it a versatile and impactful form of exercise catering to diverse populations.

Clarifying Key Definitions in Resistance Training

This section begins by providing fundamental definitions of terms used in resistance training, serving as a crucial foundation for effective communication and understanding among those engaged in strength and conditioning.

1. Concentric Muscle Action: When lifting a weight, the major muscles shorten or contract, generating force. The term “contraction” is also apt for this type of muscle action.
2. Eccentric Muscle Action: When lowering a weight in a controlled manner, the major muscles develop force and lengthen. Muscles can only lengthen in a controlled manner. Gravity typically aids in returning the weight to its starting position, and the muscles must lengthen in a controlled manner to control the weight’s descent.
3. Isometric Muscle Action: Occurs when a muscle generates force but does not visibly move the joint. This action can happen when holding a weight stationary or when the weight is too heavy to lift further. Maximal isometric force surpasses maximal concentric force at any velocity but is lower than maximal eccentric force at any movement velocity.
4. Repetition: One complete motion of an exercise, typically involving two phases: the concentric muscle action (lifting) and the eccentric muscle action (lowering). In some exercises, a complete repetition may encompass multiple movements and muscle actions.
5. Set: A group of repetitions performed continuously without rest. Sets often consist of 1 to 15 repetitions.
6. Repetition Maximum (RM): The maximum number of consecutive repetitions, using proper lifting technique, that can be performed in a set with a given resistance. The heaviest resistance allowing one complete repetition is called 1RM, while a lighter resistance permitting 10 but not 11 repetitions is referred to as 10RM.
7. Repetition Training Zone: A range typically spanning three repetitions (e.g., 3-5, 8-10). When working within a repetition training zone, the resistance can enable the desired number of repetitions with relative ease or lead to momentary voluntary failure. If momentary failure occurs, it becomes an RM training zone. However, using an RM training zone does not necessarily entail a set to failure.
8. Power: The rate at which work is performed. In a repetition, power is calculated as the weight lifted multiplied by the vertical distance it’s lifted, divided by the time needed for the repetition. Power can be increased by lifting the same weight the same vertical distance more quickly or by lifting a heavier resistance the same vertical distance in the same time as a lighter resistance.
9. Maximal Strength: The maximum force a muscle or muscle group can generate in a specified movement pattern at a specific velocity. For example, in the bench press, 1RM represents strength at a relatively slow speed. The classic strength-velocity curve indicates that maximal strength decreases as concentric velocity increases. Conversely, as eccentric velocity increases, maximal strength increases and then plateaus.

These fundamental definitions lay the groundwork for meaningful discussions and applications in resistance training, ensuring clarity and consistency when discussing principles and program design within the realm of strength and conditioning.

Understanding Maximal Voluntary Muscle Actions in Resistance Training

The concept of maximal voluntary muscle actions, or performing sets to failure, is explored in this section, shedding light on its role in increasing muscular strength. It is crucial to clarify that maximal voluntary muscle actions do not necessarily entail lifting the absolute maximum resistance possible for one complete repetition (1RM). Instead, it involves the muscle generating as much force as its present fatigue level will allow. When a muscle is partially fatigued, it cannot produce the same force as when fully rested. The final repetition in a set that leads to momentary concentric failure is considered a maximal voluntary muscle action, despite the force generated being less than the absolute maximum due to partial fatigue.

Many resistance training systems implement momentary concentric failure, or RM resistance, to ensure maximal voluntary muscle actions. This approach results in increased strength, power, or local muscular endurance. However, daily fluctuations in strength, caused by factors like fatigue from other training types or insufficient sleep, have led to the use of repetition training zones or RM training zones to prescribe training resistances for a set.

A training zone, like a 4-6 or 8-10 zone, comprises a small number of repetitions and does not necessarily result in momentary concentric failure. In contrast, an RM training zone, with a small range of repetitions, does lead to momentary concentric failure. Using training zones and RM training zones accommodates day-to-day strength variations, while prescribing a true repetition maximum, such as 6RM, requires the lifter to perform precisely six repetitions. This approach leads to prescribing an RM training zone or sets to momentary voluntary fatigue.

Crucially, maximal strength gains are achievable without consistently performing maximal voluntary muscle actions or carrying sets to failure in every training session, or even in none at all. This principle applies to both seniors and healthy adults. For seniors, equivalent strength and fat-free mass gains were observed regardless of whether maximal voluntary muscle actions were executed during every training session or only one out of three sessions per week. Similarly, in healthy adults, not performing sets to failure resulted in equivalent maximal strength gains and greater power gains during a peaking training phase compared to carrying sets to failure.

While maximal voluntary muscle actions are not mandatory for strength gains, it remains unclear how close to failure a set can be terminated while still achieving optimal maximal strength gains. As a general guideline, it is recommended to carry sets close to failure at some point within a training program.

In certain exercises, performing maximal voluntary muscle actions does not necessarily mean the last repetition in a set remains incomplete. For instance, during power cleans, some muscle fibers may fatigue, causing a reduction in bar velocity and height in the first repetition of a set, despite the trainee’s maximal effort. Such situations still constitute maximal voluntary muscle actions as they involve developing maximal force in a partially fatigued state.

Some resistance training machines are intentionally designed to encourage maximal voluntary muscle actions, often by increasing the range of motion or the number of repetitions in a set. Developments in equipment, such as variable resistance, variable variable resistance, and isokinetic equipment, demonstrate the belief in the need for close-to-maximal voluntary muscle actions in training. Competitive Olympic weightlifters, powerlifters, and bodybuilders all acknowledge the necessity of such actions in their training programs. However, it is evident that strength gains and hypertrophy can be achieved without pushing sets to absolute failure.

Understanding Intensity in Resistance Training

Intensity is a fundamental factor in resistance training, and this section delves into its intricate aspects. Intensity in a resistance training exercise is typically expressed as a percentage of the 1RM (1-Repetition Maximum) or any RM resistance for that specific exercise. The minimal intensity required for a set to result in momentary voluntary fatigue and increased strength in young, healthy individuals is estimated to be between 60% to 65% of 1RM. Nevertheless, it’s essential to recognize that the choice of resistance intensity is not one-size-fits-all; it varies across populations and training goals.

For instance, progression with resistances in the 50% to 60% of 1RM range may be effective and even lead to greater 1RM increases than using heavier resistances in certain groups, such as children and senior women. In contrast, approximately 80% of 1RM has been identified as the optimal intensity for maximal strength gains in individuals with established weight training experience.

Crucially, performing numerous repetitions with very light resistance does not result in strength gains. The maximum number of repetitions per set that fosters strength gains depends on the exercise and muscle group involved. For example, trained men can perform 45.5 repetitions at 60% of 1RM in the leg press but only 21.3 repetitions in the arm curl. Moreover, training level also impacts the number of repetitions performed in weight machine exercises, with trained individuals usually completing more repetitions at a given percentage of 1RM than their untrained counterparts.

While free weight exercises performed by trained men generally allow more repetitions per set with large-muscle-group exercises (like squats and bench press) compared to small-muscle-group exercises (such as arm curls), cross-sectional data indicate that trained men might perform fewer repetitions at given percentages than untrained men in squats. However, studies have produced mixed results, and not all exercises show the same patterns.

Importantly, individual variation plays a significant role in the number of repetitions achievable at a given percentage of 1RM. Variations exist not only between exercises but also between men and women, free weight and machine exercises, and training status.

The concept of RM (Repetition Maximum) or RM training zones is adaptable and varies across exercises, gender, resistance types, and training levels. It’s vital to consider these factors when determining the percentage of 1RM or RM training zones for prescribing training intensity and volume.

When training for power, lower intensities are employed, often in conjunction with fast movement velocities. This approach is especially pertinent in exercises where lower intensities allow for faster movement, resulting in higher power output. This holds true for both multijoint and single-joint exercises, although multijoint exercises are typically favored when training for power.

It’s noteworthy that, unlike endurance exercise, the intensity of resistance training is not estimated using heart rate during the exercise. Heart rate doesn’t consistently correlate with resistance exercise intensity, and heart rate during resistance training can be higher at moderate percentages of 1RM than at higher percentages. Differences in heart rate during training can be attributed to variables such as exercise order and rest period lengths, rather than differences in training intensity or volume.

Understanding Training Volume in Resistance Training

Training volume is a fundamental metric in resistance training, serving as a measure of the total work performed during training sessions over a specified period. It quantifies the cumulative workload and provides insights into the effectiveness and progression of a training program. Several components directly contribute to training volume, including training frequency, session duration, the number of sets, repetitions per set, and exercises performed in a single training session. The impact of these elements on training volume cannot be overstated.

A straightforward way to estimate training volume is by tallying the total number of repetitions executed within a designated time frame, be it a week, month, or other periods of training. Additionally, training volume can be assessed by considering the total amount of weight lifted. For instance, if a 100 lb (45 kg) resistance is used to perform 10 repetitions, the volume of training would be 1,000 lb (450 kg) (10 repetitions multiplied by 100 lb or 45 kg).

However, a more precise method for determining training volume involves calculating the work performed during each repetition. Total work in a repetition is derived by multiplying the resistance with the vertical distance over which the weight is lifted. For example, lifting 100 lb (45 kg or 445 N) vertically by 3 ft (0.9 m) in a single repetition results in a total work of 300 ft ∙ lb (400 J) (or 445 N * 0.9 m = 400 J). The training volume for a set of 10 repetitions in this scenario would be 3,000 ft ∙ lb (4,000 J) (300 ft ∙ lb per repetition multiplied by 10 repetitions).

Understanding and calculating training volume can provide valuable insights into the overall training stress experienced by an individual. Importantly, there exists a direct relationship between higher training volumes and various training outcomes. These outcomes include muscle hypertrophy, reductions in body fat, increases in fat-free mass, and enhancements in motor performance. Moreover, larger training volumes might slow down the loss of strength gains following the cessation of training.

In essence, training volume is a pivotal factor that needs to be considered when designing and adjusting a resistance training program. It influences the effectiveness of the program and plays a vital role in achieving desired training outcomes. Monitoring and optimizing training volume can lead to more tailored and efficient resistance training routines, ultimately contributing to better results and overall performance improvements.

The Role of Specificity in Resistance Training

Specificity in resistance training is a fundamental principle that guides the design of effective training programs. It refers to the idea that to achieve the best results, training should mimic the specific conditions and requirements of the sport, activity, or goals for which it is intended. Here, we delve into the various aspects of specificity in resistance training:

1. Velocity Specificity: Coaches and athletes often emphasize training at the velocity required during the actual sporting event. This concept aligns with the idea that resistance training yields the greatest strength and power gains at the velocity at which the training is performed. However, for those interested in developing overall strength rather than event-specific strength, an intermediate velocity is typically recommended. In essence, the choice of training velocity should match the desired outcomes, whether that be improving strength at a particular speed or enhancing strength across various speeds. For athletes aiming to maximize strength and power at various velocities needed during competition, training at multiple velocities of movement should be incorporated.
2. Muscle Action Specificity: Muscle action specificity underscores that the type of muscle action used in training significantly impacts the results. If training is isometric (e.g., static holds) and progress is assessed with a static muscle action test, substantial strength gains may be evident. However, if the evaluation involves concentric (muscle shortening) or eccentric (muscle lengthening) muscle actions, minimal strength improvement may be observed. This concept is related to testing specificity, where gains in strength are more pronounced when evaluated using exercises or muscle actions performed during training. The reason behind this specificity is neural adaptations, which enable the efficient recruitment of muscles for particular types of actions. Therefore, training programs should include the types of muscle actions encountered in the sport or activity for which the training is intended. For instance, isometric training could be beneficial for wrestlers, as they often engage in isometric muscle actions while grappling.
3. Muscle Group Specificity: This aspect of specificity underscores the importance of training every muscle group that requires strength gains or other adaptations. To achieve this, the training program must activate or recruit the specific muscle groups in which adaptations are sought. If an individual desires to increase strength in both the flexors (e.g., biceps) and extensors (e.g., triceps) of the elbow, the training program should include exercises that target both muscle groups. The selection of exercises should align with the training goals, such as increasing strength, power, endurance, or muscle hypertrophy, for each specific muscle group.

Energy Source Specificity in Resistance Training

The principle of energy source specificity is a crucial component of resistance training that underlines the metabolic adaptations related to the predominant energy systems used during physical activities. There are two primary anaerobic sources and one aerobic source of energy that muscles rely on to perform various physical tasks. The utilization of these energy sources is largely determined by the specific demands of the activity. Here, we delve into the concept of energy source specificity in resistance training:

1. Anaerobic Energy Sources: Anaerobic energy sources are responsible for supplying the majority of energy required for high-power, short-duration events. These activities include explosive, maximal-effort actions like sprinting over short distances (e.g., a 100-meter sprint). In this context, energy is produced rapidly and without oxygen, and the training should mimic these conditions to enhance the ability to perform anaerobic exercise.
2. Aerobic Energy Source: The aerobic energy source, in contrast, provides the majority of energy for longer-duration, lower-intensity activities. Examples of these types of events are long-distance runs such as a 5,000-meter race. During aerobic metabolism, energy production occurs with the presence of oxygen, allowing for sustained performance over extended periods.
3. Training Goals and Adaptations: The specific adaptations desired in resistance training play a pivotal role in determining the energy source specificity. For those seeking to improve their capacity for anaerobic exercise, training sessions should be brief yet intense, reflecting the energy demands of short, high-power events. In contrast, if the aim is to enhance aerobic capability, training bouts should be of longer duration and lower intensity to simulate the energy requirements of sustained, lower-intensity activities.
4. Hybrid Adaptations: While resistance training is often associated with enhancing the anaerobic energy sources, it can also lead to increases in aerobic capacity. For instance, when individuals engage in resistance training, such as weight lifting, it may result in improved maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max). This suggests that resistance training can have a hybrid effect, stimulating adaptations in both anaerobic and aerobic energy systems.
5. Training Variables: To achieve energy source-specific adaptations, various training variables must be appropriately aligned. These variables include the number of sets and repetitions, the duration of rest intervals between sets and exercises, and other factors that influence the metabolic responses to training. Customizing these variables is essential to target the specific energy system relevant to the training goals.

Safety Aspects in Resistance Training

Safety is paramount in any successful resistance training program. While all physical activities carry some level of inherent risk, these risks can be significantly mitigated or eliminated through the use of correct lifting techniques, spotting, proper breathing, maintenance of equipment, and appropriate attire.

Ensuring the safety of resistance training involves a combination of practices and precautions to reduce the likelihood of injury:

1. Correct Lifting Techniques: Proper exercise form is essential for reducing the risk of injury. Learning and consistently using the right techniques when lifting weights can prevent many common issues.
2. Spotting: When engaging in heavy lifting or exercises that could pose a risk if not completed, a spotter can provide crucial assistance. Spotting helps lifters push their limits while maintaining safety.
3. Proper Breathing: Correct breathing techniques can support lifters in managing the increased demands on the body during resistance training. This helps maintain focus and reduce the risk of injuries.
4. Equipment Maintenance: Keeping resistance training equipment in good working condition is essential. Regular checks and maintenance can prevent accidents or injuries due to equipment failure.
5. Appropriate Clothing: Wearing suitable workout attire can enhance safety by providing comfort, freedom of movement, and minimizing the risk of clothing getting caught on equipment.

In practice, the chances of sustaining injuries during resistance training are relatively low. For example, among college American football players, weight room injuries occurred at a very low rate, amounting to only 0.35 injuries per 100 players per season. These injuries accounted for a mere 0.74% of all reported time-lost injuries during the football season. By paying close attention to proper procedures in the weight room, such as adhering to correct exercise techniques and using collars with free weight bars, injury rates can be further reduced. Supervised health and fitness facilities with resistance training components also report very low injury rates, with just 0.048 injuries per 1,000 participant-hours.

However, it’s important to note that not all resistance training settings are equally safe. An analysis of injury locations indicates that 42% of resistance training injuries occur at home, with 29% and 16% occurring at sport facilities and schools, respectively. Lack of supervision appears to contribute significantly to these injuries.

In children and adults, muscle sprains and strains are common resistance training injuries, and they become more frequent with age. Accidental injuries are more likely in children and decrease as individuals grow older. Specifically, proper safety precautions should be taken when performing exercise techniques involving the shoulder complex, as 36% of documented resistance training injuries involve the shoulder complex.

Even in competitive powerlifters, the rate of injury remains low compared to other sports. Powerlifters experienced an injury rate of only 0.3 injuries per lifter per year, with the rate increasing with age and more injuries reported among women. It’s interesting to note that the use of weight belts may not offer the degree of protection to the lumbar spine that some assume when lifting maximal loads and could even increase the risk of injury.

Spotting in Resistance Training

Spotting plays a crucial role in ensuring the safety of participants in a resistance training program. Spotting involves individuals other than the lifter who assist in various ways to ensure the safety of the person lifting weights. Spotters serve three primary functions:

1. Assisting the Trainee: Spotters are there to help the trainee complete a repetition if necessary, especially when lifting heavy weights or nearing failure.
2. Critiquing Exercise Technique: Spotters also provide valuable feedback on the lifter’s exercise technique, ensuring that it remains correct and safe.
3. Summoning Help: In the event of an accident or injury, spotters are responsible for calling for help if needed.

Several considerations should be kept in mind when it comes to spotting:

• Strength of Spotters: Spotters must be strong enough to provide assistance to the lifter if required, especially in the case of heavy lifting.
• Multiple Spotters: Certain exercises, such as back squats, may require more than one spotter to ensure the lifter’s safety.
• Knowledge of Technique: Spotters should be well-versed in the proper spotting techniques and have an understanding of the correct exercise technique for each lift they are assisting with.
• Awareness: Spotters should always remain attentive to the lifter and their exercise technique throughout the set.
• Repetitions: It’s important for spotters to know how many repetitions the trainee intends to attempt.

While it’s impractical to provide detailed descriptions of spotting techniques for all resistance training exercises within this text, comprehensive resources are available in literature for guidance.

Breathing in Resistance Training

The Valsalva maneuver, which involves holding one’s breath while trying to exhale with a closed glottis, should be avoided during resistance training exercises. This maneuver can lead to a substantial rise in blood pressure. It’s crucial to note that elevated blood pressure increases the afterload on the heart, making the left ventricle’s work more difficult when ejecting blood.

The recommended breathing pattern during resistance training typically involves exhaling during the lifting phase (concentric) and inhaling during the lowering phase (eccentric). While little difference in heart rate and blood pressure response is observed between this breathing pattern and inhaling during lifting and exhaling during lowering, it’s essential to discourage excessive breath-holding.

Proper Exercise Technique

Correct exercise technique is vital for two primary reasons:

1. Preventing Injury: Proper form reduces the risk of injury, especially in exercises that place significant stress on the lower back (e.g., squats and deadlifts) or those where the resistance can rebound off body parts (e.g., free weight bench press).
2. Targeting Specific Muscle Groups: Maintaining proper form ensures that the intended muscle groups are receiving the optimal training stimulus. Improper form can lead to other muscle groups assisting in the movement, potentially reducing the effectiveness of the exercise.

It’s important to terminate a set if exercise technique deteriorates, as this may indicate that the resistance level being used exceeds the lifter’s current strength capabilities for a given number of repetitions. Proper exercise techniques are specific to individual exercises and the muscle groups being trained. Extensive descriptions of the proper form for various exercises are available in literature for reference.

Full Range of Motion

Training with the full range of motion is generally recommended. Full range of motion means performing exercises through the greatest possible range of movement allowed by the body’s position and the involved joints. The assumption is that to develop strength across the entire range of motion at a joint, training should be conducted throughout that full range. While no definitive studies are available to confirm this, training only at specific joint angles may result in strength gains being confined to a narrow range around those angles.

Resistance Training Shoes

A safe shoe for resistance training doesn’t necessarily have to be specialized for Olympic-style lifting or powerlifting but should meet certain criteria for safety and effectiveness. These criteria include good arch support, a nonslip sole, a proper fit, and a sole that doesn’t absorb shock. The first three are primarily for safety, while the last criterion ensures that the force generated by the leg muscles to lift the weight is not wasted in compressing the shoe’s sole. A compressible heel area, such as in running shoes, may compromise balance during exercises like back squats. Shoes designed for cross-training often fulfill all of these requirements and are suitable for most fitness enthusiasts, strength or power athletes, Olympic-style lifters, or powerlifters.

Resistance Training Gloves

Resistance training gloves, which cover only the palm area, serve to protect the palms from abrasions or catching on free weight and machine handles. These gloves offer the advantage of maintaining a good grip of the bar or handle with the fingers while preventing blisters and the tearing of calluses on the hands. However, it’s important to note that the use of gloves is not mandatory for safe resistance training, and personal preference often determines their use.

Training Belts in Resistance Training

Training belts in resistance training are typically designed with a wide back portion, with the purpose of providing support to the lumbar area or low back. Contrary to what might be assumed, the primary mechanism by which these belts support the low back is not the wide back area itself. Instead, these belts serve to provide an object against which the abdominal muscles can push. This action raises intra-abdominal pressure, which, in turn, supports the lumbar vertebrae from the anterior side. Increased intra-abdominal pressure helps prevent the flexion of the lumbar vertebrae, aiding in maintaining an upright posture. Strong abdominal muscles play a key role in sustaining intra-abdominal pressure, as weak abdominal musculature can protrude anteriorly, resulting in decreased intra-abdominal pressure and less support for the lumbar vertebrae.

Training belts can be employed when performing exercises that impose significant stress on the lumbar area, such as squats and deadlifts. However, it’s important to emphasize that training belts are not necessary for the safe execution of these exercises, nor should they be used to compensate for technique problems caused by weak abdominal or low back musculature.

It’s worth noting that many individuals misuse weight training belts, such as employing them when lifting light weights or performing exercises unrelated to low back stress. In some cases, the use of weight training belts has been associated with an increased injury rate to the lower spine. This increase might be attributed to the belief that such belts provide protection to competitive lifters as they push their abilities with maximal or supramaximal weights in preparation for competition. Additionally, wearing a training belt significantly increases blood pressure, contributing to increased cardiovascular stress, making their use inappropriate in activities like stationary biking or exercises that don’t significantly stress the lumbar area. Weight training belts should not be worn during exercises that do not require back support or when using light to moderate resistances (e.g., resistances higher than 6RM or low percentages of 1RM).

If a training program includes exercises that place a substantial amount of stress on the low back, it should also encompass exercises dedicated to strengthening the low back and abdominal regions.

Equipment Maintenance in Resistance Training

Proper maintenance of equipment is a critical aspect of a safe resistance training program. Pulleys, cables, or belts should be inspected regularly for signs of wear and replaced as needed. The equipment should be lubricated as recommended by the manufacturer to ensure smooth operation. Any cracked or broken free weight plates, dumbbells, or plates in a machine’s weight stack should be retired and replaced to maintain safety. Upholstery on benches and seats should be disinfected daily to ensure hygiene and cleanliness.

For bars used in resistance training, such as Olympic bars, it’s crucial that the sleeves revolve freely to avoid injuring the skin on the lifter’s hands. Any equipment that is not in working order should be clearly marked as such, and its use should be prohibited until it is properly repaired or replaced.

In a well-run resistance training facility or program, injuries resulting from improper equipment maintenance should never occur. Proper maintenance not only guarantees the longevity of the equipment but also the safety of those who use it.