Resistance Training Systems

The landscape of resistance training is filled with numerous systems and techniques, many of which have been designed by strength coaches, powerlifters, Olympic weightlifters, bodybuilders, or personal trainers. These systems and techniques were originally crafted to meet the specific needs and goals of particular groups, often centered around young, healthy adults or athletes. These needs encompass not only the desired training outcomes, such as increased strength or changes in body composition but also administrative considerations like the available training time, traditional training practices, and equipment accessibility.

The popularity of a particular system or technique is often not rooted in scientific evidence showing its superiority over others in terms of eliciting changes in strength, power, or body composition. Instead, it is largely driven by the fact that it has been used and promoted by individuals, groups, or companies. Some systems or techniques may gain favor within a specific group because they are more time-efficient compared to others.

A considerable amount of speculation exists regarding why certain systems and techniques are effective and how they lead to physiological adaptations. Research in this area, especially involving individuals who are already resistance-trained, is relatively limited. Long-term studies, spanning six months or more, are particularly needed to establish whether a particular system or technique consistently produces fitness gains or if it eventually leads to a training plateau after several months.

Knowledge of the various training systems and techniques is invaluable when designing a training program to address the unique goals, needs, and administrative considerations of an individual or group. This knowledge also proves beneficial when faced with a training plateau, as changing the training regimen is one method to overcome this stagnation.

While there is a vast array of training systems and techniques, they essentially demonstrate the multitude of combinations possible with acute training variables. However, some practitioners tend to adopt a single system and apply it universally to all trainees for extended periods. This practice can result in strength, power, and body composition plateaus, and in certain exercises, particularly when the same system is applied indefinitely. Introducing different training systems or techniques into a program can help introduce variety and potentially prevent training plateaus.

A common error made by novice practitioners is assuming that a system or technique used by an elite athlete, such as a champion bodybuilder, powerlifter, or Olympic weightlifter, is the best choice for novice lifters or recreational athletes. Often, these elite athletes have undergone years of rigorous training to achieve the fitness levels required to tolerate and adapt to their training programs. Moreover, genetic factors may play a role in their ability to thrive in high-intensity or high-volume programs and still make substantial gains in strength, power, and hypertrophy.

Maintaining a detailed training record is invaluable for determining the most effective training system or variation of a system for an individual, group, or team. Without these records, trainees are likely to forget the progression details. Documenting sets, repetitions, exercises, and resistance levels is essential for planning future training sessions and phases. Training records offer insights into how individuals respond to particular programs, revealing which systems or techniques work best and how long they can follow a specific training technique before reaching a plateau. Additionally, training logs serve as a motivational tool, allowing trainees to track their progress over weeks or months of training.

Single-Set Systems in Resistance Training

The single-set system is one of the oldest and simplest resistance training systems, involving the performance of a single set of exercises in a workout. It has been utilized since 1925, as exemplified by Liederman’s description of heavy resistance and a few repetitions per set, with a five-minute rest between exercises. Single-set systems remain popular and are often recommended as a time-efficient approach to building and maintaining muscular fitness, particularly for novice and older weight trainers.

Research and studies have explored the efficacy of single-set systems compared to multiple-set systems, where multiple sets of exercises are performed. The results are mixed and depend on various factors. Some studies indicate that single-set systems can lead to significant increases in strength and notable changes in body composition, with no significant difference in strength gains between single-set and multiple-set programs in untrained individuals. In contrast, other studies suggest that multiple-set programs may be superior for strength gains.

The discrepancy in findings may be due to the duration of the studies. Shorter studies (around 16 weeks) may not show significant differences in strength gains between single-set and multiple-set programs. However, as studies extend to 17 to 40 weeks, multiple-set programs tend to result in greater strength gains, especially for trained individuals. Meta-analyses generally support that longer training durations with multiple sets lead to more substantial strength gains, and multiple-set programs tend to be superior for strength gains in both untrained and trained individuals.

Interestingly, the disparity in strength gains between single-set and multiple-set programs may be more pronounced in untrained individuals than in trained ones. Furthermore, comparisons of various multiple-set periodized systems to non varied single-set systems tend to favor periodized systems, producing greater increases in strength, motor performance, and body composition changes.

Multiple-Set Systems in Resistance Training

Multiple-set systems are a common approach to resistance training and involve performing more than one set of exercises in a workout. These sets can be executed with the same resistance or with varying resistances, with differing numbers or the same number of repetitions per set, and with the option of taking all, some, or no sets to volitional fatigue. There is considerable flexibility in designing multiple-set systems, as they encompass any training regimen consisting of more than a single set of an exercise. This approach has evolved over time, and one of the original multiple-set systems included warm-up sets of increasing resistance followed by several sets at the same resistance, a concept popularized in the 1940s.

Research, particularly meta-analyses, supports the notion that multiple-set programs generally lead to more significant strength and hypertrophy gains compared to single-set programs. The distinction should be made between the number of sets per exercise and the number of sets per muscle group. For instance, if two sets of two different arm curl exercises are performed, the biceps undergo four sets. Meta-analyses suggest that four sets per muscle group for both trained and untrained individuals, or eight sets per muscle group for trained individuals, can result in near-maximal strength gains.

The studies also indicate that strength gains from multiple-set programs may become more pronounced with longer training durations (17-40 weeks) than with shorter durations (6-16 weeks). However, it’s important to note that sticking to a multiple-set system without modifying training variables for extended periods can lead to a plateau in strength.

While multiple-set programs typically yield significantly greater fitness gains compared to single-set programs, there are exceptions. For instance, a study involving three days of training per week showed that lower-body strength and muscle hypertrophy were greater with a three-set program, while upper-body strength and hypertrophy did not show the same differences.

Moreover, when comparing periodized multiple-set systems to non varied multiple-set systems, periodized systems tend to produce greater fitness gains. Periodization involves changing training variables and structure over time, helping to prevent plateaus and optimize progress. Periodized multiple-set systems can enhance various fitness parameters, including strength and hypertrophy.

Circuit System in Resistance Training

Circuit systems are a style of resistance training that involves performing a series of exercises in succession with minimal rest intervals, typically lasting 15 to 30 seconds between exercises. During a circuit workout, individuals typically perform around 10 to 15 repetitions of each exercise, using a resistance that corresponds to approximately 40 to 60% of their one-repetition maximum (1RM). The workout can include one or several circuits of exercises. However, when only one set of each exercise is performed, it is more accurately referred to as an “express circuit.”

Circuit systems can cover exercises for any muscle group and are highly efficient when training large numbers of individuals, as each piece of equipment remains in constant use. They are also time-efficient, making them suitable for individuals with limited training time.

It’s important to note that using 40 to 60% of 1RM for 10 to 15 repetitions might not lead to sets performed close to volitional fatigue. This limitation can potentially restrict maximal strength gains. The number of repetitions to fatigue varies among individuals and is dependent on the percentage of 1RM used. For example, using 40% of 1RM can lead to 78 to 146 repetitions on the leg press for untrained and trained males and females, whereas using 60% of 1RM may result in 34 to 57 repetitions. To enhance maximal strength, it may be advisable to increase the resistance in many exercises, using 10- to 15RM resistances or those close to RM resistances.

Circuit programs, especially those using roughly 67% of 1RM (e.g., three sets of 10 repetitions per set at 12RM), do lead to increased heart rate, blood pressure, and oxygen consumption. The effects vary between sexes, with men demonstrating greater oxygen consumption, total energy expenditure, and systolic blood pressure than women. Nevertheless, both men and women experience a substantial increase in average heart rate during circuit training, reaching approximately 86% of their maximal heart rate during the third circuit.

The short rest intervals employed in circuit training help maintain elevated heart rates throughout the entire workout, which can be beneficial for cardiorespiratory fitness. Circuit programs typically increase maximal oxygen consumption, albeit to varying degrees. Short-duration (8-20 weeks) circuit systems tend to raise peak oxygen consumption by about 4% in healthy men and 8% in healthy women. However, the extent of the increase can significantly differ, with some studies reporting no improvement in men but a substantial 10% increase in women. Additionally, previously sedentary individuals can expect a substantial 12% increase in maximal oxygen consumption through circuit training.

The extent of the rise in peak oxygen consumption depends on the specific population performing circuit training. Individuals with initially low peak oxygen consumption can anticipate more significant gains.

If the objective of a weight training system is to enhance cardiorespiratory endurance, a circuit variation is a suitable choice. However, to achieve this goal, the training program should incorporate a traditional endurance training component, such as running, cycling, elliptical training, or swimming.

Circuit training offers numerous variations, one of which is the peripheral heart action system. This approach divides the training session into sequences, with each sequence containing several exercises targeting different body parts. The number of repetitions per set within a sequence may vary depending on the program’s goals, but typically involves 8 to 12 repetitions. The participant completes all exercises in the first sequence in a circuit fashion, and this sequence is repeated three times. The remaining sequences are then performed consecutively.

Another circuit variation is the triset system, where groups of three exercises are performed, usually for the same major body segment. There is little or no rest between exercises, and typically three sets of each exercise are executed. Trisets are effective for increasing isometric strength.

Both the peripheral heart action and triset circuit variations are fatiguing and result in a relatively high heart rate throughout the workout. These circuit programs are beneficial for improving cardiorespiratory fitness and local muscular endurance. However, when the goal is to enhance cardiorespiratory endurance, including a traditional endurance training component in the overall program is recommended.

Drop Sets in Resistance Training

Drop sets, also known as strip sets, are a popular approach in resistance training where you perform a set of an exercise to the point of volitional fatigue or muscle failure and then immediately reduce the resistance, known as “dropping” or “stripping,” to perform another set of the same exercise to volitional fatigue. These sets often involve little or no rest between sets, and a typical range of repetitions per set is 8 to 12. Drop sets are commonly utilized by bodybuilders and fitness enthusiasts to increase muscle hypertrophy and can also contribute to gains in local muscular endurance. Multiple drop sets, typically two or three, are usually performed for each exercise.

Studies have shown the effectiveness of drop sets in increasing strength and muscle growth. For example, in a study that spanned nine weeks of training, significantly greater gains in one-repetition maximum (1RM) were observed for the biceps curl and bench press when using three sets of 6 to 10 repetitions with drop sets compared to just one set. While the benefits of drop sets in comparison to other training techniques are not well-documented, it’s clear that they can lead to strength gains, especially when used for multiple sets.

The main aim of drop sets is to maintain total training volume by keeping the number of repetitions per set relatively constant, but it’s crucial to remember that decreasing resistance will result in a decrease in the overall training volume. This approach involves performing successive sets with the same resistance and relatively short rest intervals (e.g., one minute), which leads to a gradual reduction in the number of repetitions in each set. For example, during the back squats, a four-set regimen at 8RM resistance resulted in 5.93, 4.47, and 4.20 repetitions for the second to fourth sets, respectively. This pattern of decreasing repetitions is observed in other exercises as well.

To maintain approximately 10 repetitions per set with a 10RM resistance and one-minute rest between sets and two minutes between exercises in a sequence, it’s necessary to decrease resistance by about 15% for each set. However, the effect of decreasing resistance on the number of repetitions per set can vary depending on the exercise or where it falls in the exercise sequence. Individuals who have previously engaged in resistance training aimed at increasing local muscular endurance (with moderate resistance and short rest periods) may find it easier to maintain a specific number of repetitions per set without altering the resistance or requiring smaller reductions in resistance.

Drop sets are also referred to by other names like multi-poundage and breakdown training. The multi-poundage system involves using drop sets with a 4- or 5RM resistance for four or five repetitions in the first set. After the first set, the resistance is decreased, and the trainee performs another set of four or five repetitions, and this pattern continues for several sets. In breakdown training, the trainee performs a set to muscular fatigue and immediately reduces the resistance, allowing for an additional two to four repetitions. A comparison of breakdown training to traditional training indicates greater strength increases with breakdown training.

Performing drop sets with free weights safely requires one or two spotters, but machines may not necessitate spotters. Drop sets can be extremely fatiguing and may result in muscle soreness, so it’s advisable to gradually introduce them into your training program.

Triangle, or Pyramid, System in Resistance Training

The triangle, or pyramid, system is a popular approach in resistance training, often utilized by powerlifters and those seeking to enhance their one-repetition maximum (1RM) lifting ability. In this system, a complete triangle, or pyramid, regimen begins with a set of 10 to 12 repetitions using a light resistance. The resistance is then progressively increased over several sets, leading to fewer and fewer repetitions performed, until the trainee reaches their 1RM. Following this, the same sets and resistances are repeated in reverse order, with the last set consisting of 10 to 12 repetitions.

This system typically involves using resistances and repetitions that are close to one’s repetition maximums (RMs). It’s important to note that any combination of repetition numbers per set can be considered a triangle system, as long as the number of repetitions per set initially decreases and then increases throughout the workout.

Light-to-Heavy System in Resistance Training

The light-to-heavy system, as the name suggests, involves progressing from light to heavy resistances during a training session. One variation of this system, known as the ascending half triangle or ascending half-pyramid, involves performing the first half of a triangle system. This means starting with higher numbers of repetitions per set with light resistances and gradually decreasing the repetitions as the resistance becomes heavier.

A notable variation of the light-to-heavy system is known to have been popular among Olympic lifters in the 1930s and 1940s. In this system, you begin with a relatively light resistance and perform a set of three to five repetitions. Then, you add five pounds to the resistance and repeat the set, continuing this pattern until you can only perform one repetition. This approach is an effective way to build strength incrementally over time.

Another example of a light-to-heavy system is the Delorme regime, which was scientifically examined and consists of three sets of 10 repetitions. In this system, resistance progresses from 50% to 66% and finally to 100% of a 10RM in successive sets. The Delorme system has been shown to result in significant strength increases over short training periods, as per study results.

Heavy-to-Light System in Resistance Training

Conversely, the heavy-to-light system is one where, after a few warm-up sets, the heaviest set is performed, followed by a reduction in resistance for each subsequent set. Some heavy-to-light systems can also be described as descending half triangle or descending half pyramid systems. In this type of system, the first set, which is the heaviest, involves the fewest repetitions, and the resistance is then decreased while the number of repetitions is increased.

The Oxford system is an example of a heavy-to-light regimen, consisting of three sets of 10 repetitions with resistance decreasing from 100% to 66% and finally to 50% of a 10RM in each successive set. This system has been found to yield significant strength gains, as demonstrated in various studies.

When comparing the heavy-to-light and light-to-heavy systems, the results can vary and are not definitively conclusive. Some studies suggest one may be superior to the other in terms of strength gains, while others indicate little difference. For instance, one study found the heavy-to-light system to be superior for strength gains but suggested the need for further research.

Double Progressive System in Resistance Training

The double progressive system is a unique approach to resistance training, characterized by a combination of elements from both descending and ascending half triangle systems. Unlike some other training systems where either repetitions or resistance changes, this system varies both the number of repetitions per set and the resistance used.

In the double progressive system, the initial several sets focus on maintaining a constant resistance while progressively increasing the number of repetitions per set until a specified number of sets have been completed. Following this, the resistance is increased, and the number of repetitions per set is decreased until it matches the number of repetitions performed in the first set. This pattern is repeated for each exercise in the training session.

. In essence, the double progressive system combines elements of both higher-repetition, lower-intensity training and lower-repetition, higher-intensity training within the same workout. This approach is designed to offer a comprehensive resistance training experience by focusing on endurance and maximal strength gains.

When comparing the double progressive system to other systems, particularly in terms of isometric strength, it appears to be one of the less effective methods for achieving significant strength gains. However, it’s essential to keep in mind that the effectiveness of a resistance training system can vary depending on individual goals and preferences. The double progressive system is known to be quite time-consuming, and the initial sets are often considered warm-up sets since they are not performed close to volitional fatigue.

Moreover, there is limited research available on the double progressive system. The existing research suggests that its use may not be justified compared to other training methods. However, it’s important to recognize that the effectiveness of a training system can depend on various factors, including individual fitness goals and the specific adaptations one is seeking in their workout regimen.

Exercise Order Systems in Resistance Training

Exercise order systems play a fundamental role in resistance training, dictating the sequence in which exercises are performed. Two primary categories of exercise order are commonly employed: alternating muscle group order and stacking exercise order. These systems can be further customized to suit individual training goals and preferences, resulting in a variety of exercise order approaches.

Alternating Muscle Group Order:

In an alternating muscle group order system, exercises for a specific muscle group are not performed consecutively. Instead, workouts involve exercises for different muscle groups or those with antagonistic functions in an alternating fashion. This approach can offer several advantages.

For example, when employing a paired set training approach, one set of an exercise is followed by a set of another exercise that targets muscle groups antagonistic to those engaged in the first exercise. While the rest periods between exercises in the alternating muscle group order can be shorter, the total rest time is often similar to that of traditional exercise orders.

One benefit of alternating muscle group order is that it provides some recovery time for the muscle groups involved in the other exercise. This recovery helps maintain training volume and prevent early muscle fatigue. Theoretically, it allows for a more efficient workout in terms of time spent.

Research has shown that when comparing an alternating muscle group order to a traditional exercise order, the former can be more time-efficient while still providing necessary rest periods. However, electromyography (EMG) activity in the muscles was similar for both exercise orders. Total training volume, which is crucial for hypertrophy, also demonstrated smaller decreases in the alternating exercise order, further suggesting its effectiveness.

Stacking Exercise Order – Flushing System:

The “flushing” system is a specialized approach to stacking exercise order, often used by bodybuilders to achieve hypertrophy, definition, and vascularity in muscles. In this system, two or more exercises are performed consecutively for the same muscle group or for muscle groups located in close proximity to each other. The goal of the flushing system is to maintain high blood flow in the targeted muscle groups for an extended period, with the belief that this would lead to muscle hypertrophy.

The scientific evidence supporting the flushing system’s effectiveness in increasing hypertrophy is limited, and the mechanisms behind its potential benefits remain speculative. One hypothesis is that increased blood flow during exercise may facilitate greater access to anabolic factors such as growth hormone and testosterone, allowing them to bind more effectively to muscle and connective tissue receptors. Another hypothesis suggests that elevated blood flow could enhance nutrient availability, which may contribute to protein synthesis.

Although the flushing system is known to induce temporary hypertrophy or the “pump” effect due to increased cell volume resulting from elevated water content, its long-term effectiveness for muscle hypertrophy has not been conclusively demonstrated through scientific research. As a result, the true impact of the flushing system on hypertrophy remains uncertain.

Priority System in Resistance Training

The priority system is a versatile concept that can be integrated into various resistance training programs. Its core principle is to strategically order exercises within a training session, with a focus on prioritizing those exercises that align with the program’s primary training goals. This system is designed to enable maximal intensity during these priority exercises, ensuring they are performed with the desired number of repetitions while minimizing the influence of fatigue.

The rationale behind the priority system is that the exercises that directly contribute to the major training goals should be completed early in the workout. By doing so, trainees can execute these priority exercises with high intensity, lifting the optimal amount of weight for the target repetitions. This approach prevents early fatigue that might hinder a trainee’s ability to achieve the intended training adaptations.

Let’s illustrate the concept with a few examples:

1. Bodybuilding: Suppose a bodybuilder’s primary goal is to improve the definition and hypertrophy of their quadriceps group, which is considered their weakest muscle group. In this case, the priority system would dictate that exercises targeting the quadriceps be performed at the beginning of the training session. By placing these priority exercises upfront, the bodybuilder can maximize their effort and load during these key movements, which is crucial for achieving hypertrophic gains in the quadriceps.
2. Basketball Coaching: A basketball coach may identify that one of their power forwards lacks upper-body strength, making them vulnerable to being overpowered under the boards. To address this weakness, the coach adopts the priority system by scheduling significant upper-body exercises at the start of the training session for the player. This prioritization aims to build upper-body strength to enhance the player’s performance on the court.
3. American Football or Rugby: Players in contact sports like American football or rugby may want to emphasize the development of strength and power in the hips and lower back. To do so, exercises such as hang cleans and squats, known for their effectiveness in targeting these areas, are given priority by placing them at the beginning of the training session. This allows the athletes to perform these exercises with maximal effort and the necessary resistance for their training goals.

In essence, the priority system tailors exercise order to align with a trainee’s specific objectives. By strategically placing priority exercises at the beginning of the workout, individuals can optimize their performance and enhance the likelihood of achieving their training goals. This approach acknowledges that not all exercises have equal importance in a training program and seeks to give precedence to those that have the most significant impact on the desired outcomes.

Supersetting Systems in Resistance Training

Supersetting systems in resistance training involve performing sets of two exercises in a specific manner. There are two primary types of supersetting systems: one focuses on working agonist and antagonist muscle groups, while the other involves performing exercises for the same muscle group or body part in rapid succession. These supersetting techniques have gained popularity among bodybuilders and fitness enthusiasts and offer various benefits.

Agonist and Antagonist Supersetting: In this supersetting system, you alternate sets of exercises that target agonist and antagonist muscle groups of a particular body part. For example, you might pair exercises like arm curls with triceps extensions or knee extensions with knee curls. This approach is known for its effectiveness in increasing strength, especially when it comes to back and leg isometric strength. In fact, among the different resistance training systems, this type of supersetting ranks as one of the most potent for enhancing back and leg strength.

One study found that performing a set of exercises involving the upper back muscles (antagonists of the bench press muscles) could acutely increase bench press power by 4.7%. This suggests that antagonistic exercises may have a positive impact on agonist performance in certain cases. However, it’s worth noting that performing antagonistic exercises (e.g., knee flexion followed by knee extension) in an alternating fashion can result in decreased agonist force capabilities, particularly at slow velocities. This indicates potential limitations regarding force and power capabilities in agonist-antagonist superset training.

Time efficiency is a notable advantage of this supersetting system. Compared to traditional exercise orders, where all sets of one exercise are completed before moving to the next, agonist-antagonist supersetting saves time. This can be especially beneficial for individuals with limited training time and a goal of reducing total body fat. Additionally, it results in significantly higher blood lactate levels, which can be advantageous for those aiming to increase local muscular endurance.

Supersetting for the Same Muscle Group: The second type of supersetting involves performing rapid succession sets of two to three exercises targeting the same muscle group or body part. For example, you might perform lat pull-downs, seated rows, and bent-over rows consecutively. This type of supersetting has been linked to significant strength gains, changes in body composition, and improvements in vertical jump performance, especially when incorporated into a periodized weight training program.

Supersetting exercises under this system typically consists of sets with 8 to 12 repetitions (or more) and involves minimal rest between sets and exercises. It is a favored approach among bodybuilders and fitness enthusiasts, as it is thought to be conducive to muscle hypertrophy. Short rest periods in this system contribute to increased blood acidity, making it suitable for enhancing local muscular endurance.

Supersetting is a versatile training technique that offers a unique approach to resistance training. Whether your focus is on developing strength, hypertrophy, or endurance, supersetting systems can be tailored to align with your specific training goals. These systems are particularly well-suited for individuals who want to maximize their workout efficiency, save time, and target specific muscle groups with precision.

Split-Body and Body-Part Systems in Resistance Training

Split-body and body-part systems are popular approaches to resistance training, particularly favored by bodybuilders, athletes, and fitness enthusiasts. These systems involve dividing the body into various segments or focusing on specific muscle groups during training sessions. This division allows for more exercises to be performed per body part or muscle group, which may not be feasible in a single, full-body workout. Different variations of these systems are utilized, and each has its advantages and potential benefits.

Split-Body System: A split-body system typically divides the training routine into two major segments, such as upper and lower body workouts. For example, a training regimen could involve working on the arms, legs, and abdomen on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, and then focusing on the chest, shoulders, and back on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays. This approach allows individuals to perform multiple exercises for a specific body part within a reasonable training session duration. While this results in frequent training sessions, sufficient recovery is possible as different muscle groups are trained on non-consecutive days. Variations of this system can be designed to accommodate four or five training days per week.

One advantage of the split-body system is that it enables higher training intensity for specific muscle groups, compared to the equivalent training volume in a full-body workout. Additionally, it allows for increased training volume per body part as each session concentrates on a smaller number of body parts or muscle groups. This system is useful for incorporating assistance exercises, which can be valuable for strength development. A split-body routine using linear periodization was found to produce significant increases in strength, lean mass, and decreased fat mass and body fat percentage in both young and middle-aged men. In this regimen, upper-body and lower-body exercises were divided into two separate training sessions, each performed twice a week.

Comparatively, a study involving young women who were not previously weight trained found no significant differences between total-body and split-body routines regarding 1RM ability, lean body mass, or percent body fat changes during the initial 20 weeks of training. Both groups performed the same exercises and set repetition schemes. The split-body group divided their upper and lower-body exercises into two training sessions per week, while the total-body group trained all exercises in each session, two times a week.

Practically, split-body routines offer advantages, such as the ability to increase training volume for a specific muscle group. However, if training volume is maintained at the same level in both split-body and total-body programs, training outcomes are expected to be similar.

Body-Part System: A body-part system is akin to a split-body system, but typically, only one or two major muscle groups or body parts are trained during a single training session. This system involves training specific muscle groups on designated days of the week. For example, back training on day 1, quadriceps, calves, and abdominals on day 2, chest and triceps on day 3, and so on. Multiple exercises for each muscle group and multiple sets for each exercise are typically performed. This approach aims to provide a high training volume for a particular muscle group during one session, followed by several days of rest for that muscle group.

Body-part systems are highly favored by bodybuilders and fitness enthusiasts who believe that high-volume training, followed by ample rest, is essential for optimal gains in muscle hypertrophy. Multiple exercises and sets for each muscle group, coupled with adequate rest between workouts, are thought to provide the ideal conditions for promoting muscle growth and development.

Blitz, or Isolated Split, System

The blitz system, also known as the isolated split system, is a unique approach to resistance training that falls under the broader category of body-part systems. Unlike traditional body-part systems where multiple body parts are targeted within a single training session, the blitz system devotes an entire workout exclusively to one specific body part or muscle group. Importantly, this specialization doesn’t entail shorter training sessions; the individual dedicates the same amount of time to training a single muscle group as they would for a full-body session.

The essence of the blitz system lies in its capacity to enable more sets and exercises for a particular body part. For each workout, a specific muscle group becomes the sole focus, allowing for a more in-depth and targeted training approach. As a result, individuals adopting the blitz system can perform a variety of exercises and sets, emphasizing volume and intensity for the muscle group in question.

For instance, one might implement a blitz system that dedicates each day of the week to a distinct muscle group. An example of this could be scheduling arm exercises for Monday, chest exercises for Tuesday, leg exercises for Wednesday, and so on, covering the entire body over the course of a week. This approach has proven beneficial for bodybuilders, particularly when preparing for competitions, as it allows them to refine specific muscle groups with precision.

Moreover, the blitz system can be a suitable choice when an athlete’s performance is restricted by the strength or development of particular muscle groups. To illustrate, a long jumper may opt for a variant of the blitz system, concentrating solely on leg training in preparation for their season. This might involve dedicating two training days per week exclusively to leg exercises.

Training Techniques Applicable to Other Systems

In the realm of resistance training, numerous techniques can be universally applied across different training systems, whether it’s a single-set, multiple-set, or superset program. These techniques have the potential to enhance the effectiveness of workouts and can be tailored to suit various training methodologies. Below, we explore two such techniques, the Cheating Technique and Sets to Failure Technique, that can be integrated into most training systems:

Cheating Technique: The Cheating Technique, as the name suggests, is a technique favored by many bodybuilders and strength enthusiasts. It involves deviating from strict exercise form to perform repetitions that would be otherwise impossible to complete with perfect form. For instance, when performing standing barbell arm curls, an individual might employ a slight torso swing to initiate the movement from the fully extended position. This deviation from a rigid, upright posture may enable the lifter to handle 10 to 20 pounds more resistance than they could manage with impeccable form.

The effectiveness of the Cheating Technique hinges on the principle that various exercises have strength curves, and certain positions in these movements are weaker than others. For instance, in a barbell curl, the weakest position is when the arms are fully extended, while the strongest point occurs when the elbow joint is at roughly a 90-degree angle. When exercising with strict form, the resistance one can lift is primarily limited by the weakest position. By allowing slight deviations and cheating, the technique enables the use of heavier weights, thereby encouraging muscles to work closer to their maximum capacity over a more extensive range of motion. This, in turn, can lead to increased strength and hypertrophy gains.

However, it’s essential to exercise caution when implementing the Cheating Technique. The use of heavier resistance and deviations in form can elevate the risk of injury. For example, when performing arm curls with a swinging torso, there’s the potential for increased stress on the lower back.

Sets to Failure Technique: A Sets to Failure Technique involves performing a set of repetitions until it is no longer possible to execute a complete repetition with proper exercise technique. This point of failure can also be termed “volitional fatigue” or “concentric failure.” The Sets to Failure Technique can be seamlessly integrated into almost any training system, offering potential benefits related to motor unit recruitment and the secretion of growth-promoting hormones.

Advocates of Sets to Failure believe that pushing sets to this point can elicit a more profound recruitment of motor units and a more substantial release of growth-promoting hormones. This, in turn, leads to a heightened training stimulus, ultimately resulting in greater gains in both strength and hypertrophy.

Studies have explored the effects of training to failure versus not training to failure, and the results vary depending on the specific goals. Fitness gains can undoubtedly be achieved when all sets in a training program are pushed to failure. However, significant improvements in strength, motor performance, and body composition have also been observed when only some, but not all, sets in a program are taken to failure. Notably, even when some sets are not executed to complete failure, the number of repetitions performed and the resistance used often push the body close to the point of failure.

The key factor to consider when deciding on the Sets to Failure Technique is the training goal. If the aim is to increase local muscular endurance, pushing sets to failure can be beneficial, especially for the upper body. In contrast, for those looking to boost power, studies suggest that not training to failure can be advantageous, particularly after a peaking phase.

The impact of training to failure on the hormonal response is a subject of ongoing debate. Some studies indicate that training to failure results in a more substantial acute hormonal response, including the release of growth hormone and testosterone. However, other research suggests that training not to failure can foster a more favorable anabolic environment, characterized by lower resting blood cortisol and higher testosterone concentrations.

In conclusion, the decision to employ the Sets to Failure Technique should be based on specific training goals and individual preferences. While pushing sets to failure is not always necessary for achieving maximal strength, hypertrophy, or local muscular endurance, it can be valuable for breaking through plateaus. Nevertheless, a word of caution is essential: prolonged and repeated training to failure can increase the risk of overtraining and overuse injuries, making it important to strike a balance when incorporating this technique into a training regimen.

Burn Technique

The Burn Technique is a specialized method for enhancing resistance training that acts as an extension of the Sets to Failure Technique. After a set is executed until the point of momentary concentric failure (meaning no more complete repetitions can be performed with proper form), the lifter follows up by performing half or partial repetitions. Typically, around five or six partial repetitions are executed. These partial repetitions induce an aching or burning sensation, which is the source of this technique’s name, the Burn Technique.

The burning sensation experienced during the Burn Technique is partially attributed to an increase in intramuscular acidity. Advocates of this technique propose that executing partial repetitions while in a fatigued state further fatigues motor units, which can translate into more substantial gains in both strength and hypertrophy.

This approach is often deemed particularly effective for training certain muscle groups, with the calves and arms being cited as areas where the Burn Technique can yield significant benefits. By pushing muscles to their limits and then subjecting them to additional stress with partial repetitions, this method is believed to stimulate further muscle growth and strength development.

Forced Repetition, or Assisted Repetition, Technique

The Forced Repetition, also known as the Assisted Repetition Technique, is a method that extends the Sets to Failure Technique. In this approach, after a set is performed to failure, training partners assist the lifter by providing just enough support to enable them to complete two to four more repetitions. This assistance is typically offered during the concentric phase (lifting phase) of the repetitions, while the eccentric phase (lowering phase) is executed without help. In some instances, especially when using machines, the concentric phase of a repetition is performed with two limbs, and the eccentric phase is done with only one limb.

Forced repetitions can also refer to a type of heavy negative training. In this variation, two or three repetitions are performed with a resistance close to the lifter’s one-repetition maximum (1RM). Similar to the first forced repetition technique described, assistance is provided during the concentric phase but not the eccentric phase of repetitions.

Advocates of the Forced Repetition Technique argue that it leads to the fatigue of more motor units beyond the point of concentric failure, resulting in greater gains in strength, hypertrophy, and local muscular endurance. Interestingly, research suggests that the response to forced repetitions may differ between trained and untrained individuals. For example, electromyography (EMG) data shows that experienced strength-trained athletes (such as powerlifters and Olympic weightlifters) exhibit increased fatigue and motor unit activation during forced repetitions, but this effect is not observed in individuals with no weight training experience.

A key aspect of forced repetitions is that the eccentric phase of a repetition is performed without assistance. This aspect has led to the hypothesis that this technique can help develop the neural adaptations necessary for lowering a heavy resistance with proper exercise technique. This is particularly relevant for exercises like the bench press, where performing the eccentric portion of a repetition at a slow velocity can be advantageous since the resistance generates little momentum that needs to be overcome during the subsequent concentric phase.

Research has shown that incorporating forced repetitions into a training program can yield positive results. One study found significantly greater gains in 1RM for the biceps curl and bench press when participants performed three sets of 6 to 10 repetitions to failure, followed by two assisted repetitions, compared to a program that involved just one set of repetitions followed by two assisted repetitions. Similarly, a three-set circuit system with forced repetitions resulted in greater strength and local muscular endurance gains compared to a single-set circuit system with forced repetitions.

However, it’s essential to approach forced repetitions with caution. The discomfort and muscle soreness can be significant, particularly for those who are not accustomed to this technique. Additionally, forced repetitions are performed under conditions of fatigue, which means lifters might encounter acute discomfort and must push through it to complete the repetitions. Spotting partners should be vigilant and capable of assisting with the entire resistance used, especially if the lifter loses proper exercise technique or is too fatigued to complete a repetition safely.

Partial Repetition Technique

The Partial Repetition Technique involves performing repetitions within a limited range of motion during an exercise. Typically, these partial repetitions encompass both the concentric (lifting) and eccentric (lowering) phases of an exercise, and they are executed with heavy weights, approximately 100% of the one-repetition maximum (1RM). The amount of weight that can be used for a partial repetition is influenced by the strength curve of the exercise (whether it has an ascending, descending, or bell-shaped strength curve) and the specific range of motion within which the partial repetition is performed. For example, for a squat exercise with an ascending strength curve, it is possible to perform partial repetitions with more resistance than can be managed for a complete repetition.

Advocates of the partial repetition technique believe that by utilizing very heavy weights within a restricted range of motion, individuals can enhance their maximal strength. This approach has been particularly effective for increasing isometric strength within the partial repetition range of motion, especially in individuals with limited range of motion. For example, research has shown that in healthy weight-trained males, incorporating partial repetitions into a bench press training session led to a significant increase in partial repetition 1RM and 5RM weights. However, it did not result in a significant change in full range of motion 1RM and 5RM weights.

The effectiveness of partial repetition training is thought to be linked to neural adaptations, including the recruitment of more muscle fibers within the restricted range of motion. This adaptation may not apply to full range of motion training unless the full range of motion repetitions are performed at the sticking point of the exercise.

Studies have provided mixed results regarding the advantages of partial repetition training. In one study, it was found that full range of motion repetitions of the bench press increased strength significantly more than partial repetitions in untrained females, but not in untrained males. The partial repetition training involved performing repetitions in the top portion of the bench press’s range of motion, where the involved muscles are relatively short. Training with full range of motion resulted in significantly greater strength improvements for women, while there was no significant difference in strength improvements for men between training programs.

Furthermore, studies have shown that strength or power can be increased with partial repetitions, whether the muscle is in a shortened or lengthened position. For instance, partial repetitions with the muscle in a relatively short position (shortened length) have been demonstrated to increase power. Meanwhile, in the case of partial squats, both short and long positions resulted in greater force and power output compared to full range of motion squats. However, the effectiveness of partial repetitions in terms of muscle length (shortened or lengthened) remains uncertain.

In conclusion, the Partial Repetition Technique involves executing repetitions within a limited range of motion using heavy weights, typically 100% of 1RM. Advocates believe this method can enhance maximal strength. Partial repetitions have been effective in increasing isometric strength within the restricted range of motion, and they may be a valuable addition to full range of motion training in certain situations. Additionally, partial repetitions have been shown to lead to quick improvements in maximal strength within a specific range of motion.

Super Slow Systems

Super Slow Systems involve performing repetitions at an intentionally slow velocity. In these systems, repetitions are executed at a reduced pace, with typically one or two sets of an exercise performed. The specific tempo commonly used in super slow training includes a 10-second concentric (lifting) phase and a 4- or 5-second eccentric (lowering) phase for each repetition. Advocates of super slow systems argue that by prolonging the time during which a muscle is under tension, they can enhance strength development, hypertrophy (muscle growth), and aerobic capabilities more effectively than traditional repetition velocities.

Research has explored the effectiveness of super slow systems compared to traditional resistance training. For example, in a study comparing super slow bench press training with 10-second concentric and eccentric phases at 55% of 1RM to traditional heavy weight training (six repetitions at 6RM), it was found that electromyography (EMG) activity of the pectoralis major and triceps brachii during both the eccentric and concentric phases was significantly greater with traditional heavy weight training. This indicates that less muscle fiber recruitment occurs with the super slow system.

Early studies demonstrated that super slow training could increase maximal strength. In one study, super slow training with a 10-second concentric and 4-second eccentric phase for one set of four to six repetitions resulted in similar strength gains as a typical one-set program of 8 to 12 repetitions using a 2-second concentric and 4-second eccentric phase.

Other studies have compared super slow training with traditional resistance training. In one study, untrained women performed either super slow training (50% of 1RM, 10-second concentric and 5-second eccentric phases) or traditional weight training (2-second concentric and 4-second eccentric phases) for one set. The results showed that traditional weight training led to significantly greater strength improvements in several exercises, such as the bench press, leg press, and knee curl.

In another study, a comparison of super slow training (50% of 1RM, 10-second concentric and 5-second eccentric phases) and traditional training (80% of 1RM, 2-second concentric and 4-second eccentric phases) showed no significant difference in strength gains in untrained men. Both groups significantly increased their 1RM squat and bench press abilities.

Super slow training has also been compared to traditional training in middle-aged men and women. In one study, those who followed a super slow program showed significantly greater strength gains than those who undertook traditional training, although the comparison used different repetition maximums for testing strength gains.

Research has also explored muscle fiber adaptations with super slow and traditional training. Traditional training, performed at 80-85% of 1RM with 1- to 2-second concentric and eccentric phases, led to different muscle fiber adaptations compared to super slow training (40-60% of 1RM with 10-second concentric and 4-second eccentric phases).

Overall, the studies suggest that super slow training can increase maximal strength. However, it may not result in greater 1RM strength gains, greater increases in power, or a more robust overall muscle fiber type response compared to traditional resistance training. Traditional training may also result in a greater caloric expenditure per unit of time, which suggests that it could be more effective for decreasing body fat.

Vascular Occlusion

Vascular occlusion is a relatively recent technique in resistance training that involves using a narrow cuff to compress the major artery that supplies the muscle or muscles being trained. This compression reduces the blood flow to the muscle. Typically, the cuff is inflated to approximately diastolic blood pressure. In conjunction with vascular occlusion, low resistance training intensities, ranging from 20% to 50% of one’s one-repetition maximum (1RM), are commonly used. This training method, known as Kaatsu training, originated in Japan and dates back to the 1980s.

The technique gained significant attention in 2000 when a study reported that a 16-week, low-intensity (30-50% of 1RM) training program with vascular occlusion in older women resulted in similar increases in muscle strength and muscle cross-sectional area as a high-intensity (50-80% of 1RM) training program without occlusion. This groundbreaking study suggested that vascular occlusion training could produce comparable results to traditional high-intensity training.

Subsequent studies have explored the effectiveness of vascular occlusion training in different populations, including untrained and trained athletes. These studies have reported mixed results. Some have found that training with vascular occlusion at 50% of 1RM can lead to significantly greater increases in muscle cross-sectional area and strength gains compared to training at the same intensity without occlusion. However, other research has not demonstrated clear advantages for vascular occlusion training, especially when conducted at various resistance levels.

For instance, some studies have shown that low-intensity vascular occlusion training (around 20% of 1RM) may provide an advantage in strength, although no significant difference was observed in muscle cross-sectional area compared to the same training program without occlusion. Similarly, training with occlusion at different intensity levels, such as 60% and 80% of 1RM, has not consistently led to superior strength or muscle size gains when compared to training without occlusion at those same intensity levels.

The precise reasons why vascular occlusion training might result in greater strength and muscle size gains remain unclear. It is known that using vascular occlusion during weight training increases reliance on anaerobic metabolism, elevates certain hormones like norepinephrine and growth hormone, raises muscle acidity, and increases the presence of free radicals or reactive oxygen molecules in the muscles when compared to the same training performed without occlusion. However, the direct or indirect effects of these factors on maximal strength gains and muscle protein synthesis, which lead to muscle hypertrophy, require further investigation.

In conclusion, the effectiveness of vascular occlusion in combination with low-intensity resistance training is not yet fully understood. While some studies suggest that it can produce comparable results to traditional high-intensity training, others have reported mixed findings. Further research is needed to elucidate the mechanisms and conditions under which vascular occlusion training can provide clear advantages in strength and muscle size gains.

Small Increment Technique

The traditional approach in resistance training involves increasing resistance when a certain number of repetitions per set can be achieved. Typically, with free weights and plate-loaded machines, the smallest resistance increment is around 2.5 pounds (1.1 kilograms). However, selectorized resistance training machines often have larger increment options, sometimes exceeding 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) or more, making it challenging for users to make gradual increases in resistance. The small increment technique, as the name suggests, employs smaller increments in resistance than the standard practice.

An eight-week training study conducted to assess the small increment technique found that it yielded results in terms of one-repetition maximum (1RM) gains comparable to those achieved using more traditional resistance progression methods. In this technique, resistance is increased by 0.5 pounds (0.23 kilograms) when the lifter can perform seven or eight repetitions per set, and by 1 pound (0.45 kilograms) when nine or more repetitions are attainable per set. During the study, the resistance was increased approximately four times as often for the bench press and two times as often for the triceps press compared to a traditional approach. The small increment technique has been observed to provide novice lifters with a sense of accomplishment and a faster rate of resistance progression, potentially increasing their motivation to continue their training regimen. This approach can also be beneficial for experienced lifters facing training plateaus.

Implement Training

Implement training is a specialized approach to resistance training that involves using various objects as the resistance to be lifted or moved, expanding beyond traditional dumbbells and barbells. Examples of implements used in this type of training include water-filled dumbbells, water-filled barrels, kettlebells, or even tires. Implement training often draws comparisons to tasks performed in strongman contests due to the unconventional nature of the resistance. Advocates of this training method believe that lifting unstable objects, such as water-filled barrels that shift as they are lifted, can simulate the experience of lifting or moving unstable objects encountered in daily activities or sports.

Furthermore, certain implements, like kettlebells, allow for rotational and unconventional movements that are challenging to perform with traditional dumbbells and barbells. These movements resemble actions or tasks required in various sports. While some implement training exercises have been incorporated into strength and conditioning programs, there is limited research available to validate their effectiveness.

One form of implement training is the “tire flip,” where a large tire is flipped end over end. Success in this exercise is influenced by the timing of when the tire is flipped and the hands are repositioned, as well as the rapid elevation of heart rate and blood lactate levels, indicating its potential as an anaerobic conditioning exercise. However, evidence of the carryover of implement training to sport performance is generally lacking.

Kettlebell training, as a form of implement training, has shown positive results in terms of strength, power, and aerobic capacity. A study comparing kettlebell training to normal weight training found that both training methods significantly increased vertical jump, one-repetition maximum (1RM) squat, and power clean ability. While kettlebell training was effective, normal weight training produced greater improvements in squat 1RM and power clean ability.

Implement training has also been explored in the context of baseball and softball players. Training with under- and overweight balls and bats has been found to enhance throwing and bat velocity. For instance, the use of under- and overweight baseballs in training can lead to increased maximal throwing velocity, with minimal impact on throwing movement patterns. Similarly, under- and overweight bats can significantly boost bat velocity. Kicking weighted soccer balls may also be useful in increasing ball-kicking velocity.

Overall, while some forms of implement training have demonstrated their effectiveness, such as kettlebell training, under- and overweight balls and bats for baseball and softball players, and weighted soccer ball kicking, many aspects of implement training remain understudied and warrant further research.

Vibration Training

Vibration training is a popular technique used in resistance training. It can be employed in two primary ways: acutely, as a part of a warm-up routine to enhance immediate physical performance for upcoming activities, or as a long-term training method to improve strength and power gains. Whole-body vibration is the most commonly used form of this training, where individuals stand on a vibrating platform. However, other variations of vibration training exist, including using vibrating dumbbells and equipment that applies vibration directly to specific tendons or body parts.

The underlying physiological mechanisms responsible for the performance improvements attributed to vibration training are still a subject of research and debate. Some suggest that it may be linked to an increased sensitivity of the stretch reflex or muscle spindles, which initiate muscle contractions, or it could be related to heightened muscle fiber recruitment. Other potential factors include hormonal responses such as elevated testosterone and growth hormone levels, as well as increased muscle hypertrophy. However, there is no definitive consensus on how exactly vibration enhances neuromuscular performance.

Several factors may influence whether significant changes in strength and power occur as a result of vibration training. These include the frequency or number of vibrations per second (measured in Hertz) and the amplitude, which represents how far the vibrating platform or equipment moves during each vibration cycle. The type of whole-body vibration platform used (vertical or oscillating) also plays a role. Additionally, other variables such as the duration of exposure, exercise selection, and the specific outcome measures being considered can impact the effectiveness of vibration training.

Whole-body vibration training is often performed as part of a training regimen by having individuals perform exercise movements while standing on a vibrating platform. The acute effects of this training have been studied, and findings indicate that it can lead to significant increases in countermovement jump ability and maximal isometric force immediately after the vibration training session. This suggests that whole-body vibration can acutely enhance strength and power.

However, when evaluating the long-term effects of vibration training, the results are more varied. For example, adding whole-body vibration training to the program of ballerinas resulted in significantly improved countermovement jump performance and average power against various resistances. A nine-week comparison of normal squat training and squat training with added resistance on an oscillating whole-body vibration platform showed that both groups significantly increased maximal isometric force in a one-legged leg press. Still, only the normal squat training group experienced significant improvements in countermovement jump height and power.

The introduction of vertical whole-body vibration training to women basketball players’ training programs, which already included resistance training, did not yield any significant advantages in various strength and power measures compared to the standard training program. Studies adding vertical whole-body vibration training between sets during a six-week periodized squat training program demonstrated some small significant advantages in the initial rate of force development during certain exercises.

While some studies show potential benefits of vibration training, it’s essential to consider that results can be inconsistent. Moreover, factors such as the vibration platform used, exercise selection, and the context within a training program can significantly influence the outcome. Further research is required to gain a better understanding of how vibration training can be optimally incorporated into resistance training programs and to identify the conditions under which it provides the most benefit.

Vibration Training Effects on Strength and Performance

Vibration training has gained popularity as a potential method to enhance strength and performance in various individuals. However, the results of vibration training can be quite varied, influenced by factors such as frequency, duration, and other characteristics of the training. It’s important to note that the impact of vibration training depends on whether it’s used acutely or as part of a long-term training program.

Acute Effects: Studies have examined the acute effects of vibration training, with varying results. Acute whole-body vibration has been shown to increase leg musculature performance in untrained individuals and elderly women. Different vibration frequencies have different effects, with vertical vibration generally having a more significant long-term impact on strength compared to oscillating vibration. Moderate frequencies (around 35-40 Hz) appear to be the most effective.

The amplitude of vibration also plays a role in the effectiveness of training. Vibration amplitudes of less than 6 mm have been shown to be effective, with an amplitude of 8 to 10 mm being the most effective for power increases.

The duration of training sessions can vary from 360 to 720 seconds per session. It remains uncertain whether short sets (15 to 30 seconds) or longer sets (several minutes) are optimal for increasing power. Optimal results may depend on the specific outcome measure and the training goal.

Long-Term Effects: Long-term vibration training can have positive effects on strength and power, but it depends on various factors. Studies have shown that the response to vibration training is influenced by factors such as frequency, amplitude, and rest periods between vibration bouts. For example, the frequency of vibrations applied to a tendon or specific muscle groups can have varying effects. Lower frequencies may increase strength and power, whereas higher frequencies may not.

The length of rest periods between vibration bouts also impacts the training response. The optimal length of rest periods can depend on whether an acute or long-term effect is desired.

Other factors such as muscle length at which force or power is measured may also affect the response to vibration training. It’s essential to consider individual variation in the response to vibration training.

Additional Benefits: Vibration training may also have other benefits, such as increasing flexibility and reducing delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS). Enhanced flexibility has been observed in athletes after both whole-body vibration and vibration of specific muscle groups. This increased flexibility may be promising for long-term training programs.

Conclusion: In conclusion, the effects of vibration training on strength and performance are influenced by a variety of factors, including frequency, amplitude, and duration. Different individuals may respond differently to the same vibration stimulus. While there are positive effects of both acute and long-term vibration training, further research is needed to better understand the optimal conditions and individual responses for maximizing the benefits of vibration training.

Negative Training: Enhancing Strength Through Eccentric Repetitions

Negative training, often referred to as eccentric training, is a training method that focuses on the eccentric, or lowering, phase of a resistance exercise. In this phase, muscles actively lengthen to control the lowering of the resistance. Conversely, the lifting phase is called the concentric phase. While eccentric training can be used in various ways, this discussion will primarily focus on the use of eccentric training as a complement to traditional resistance training.

One notable feature of eccentric training is that it allows for the use of more weight during the eccentric phase than is lifted in the concentric phase. This means that more than the one-repetition maximum (1RM) can be used for a complete repetition during negative training. Additionally, accentuated eccentric training involves using more resistance in the eccentric phase than in the concentric phase.

There are several methods for incorporating negative training. Spotters can assist the lifter in raising the weight, which the lifter then lowers unassisted. Some resistance training machines are designed for negative training, allowing the use of more resistance in the eccentric phase. Safety is paramount, and proper exercise technique and spotting techniques must be followed during negative training.

The resistance used during negative training can vary, with suggested ranges of 105% to 140% of the concentric 1RM. Research indicates that seniors have safely used a range of 115% to 140% of the concentric 1RM for eccentric training. For example, during negative-only knee extensions, repetitions were successfully performed with 120% of a regular 1RM.

It’s essential to note that the resistance used in negative training may differ significantly between exercises and may vary by gender. Men’s eccentric-only 1RMs on machines were generally within the proposed percentages of the concentric 1RM for eccentric training. However, women’s eccentric-only 1RMs for some exercises exceeded the recommended limits for concentric 1RM during eccentric training.

Advocates of negative training believe that the use of more resistance during the eccentric phase results in greater strength gains. Neural adaptations may contribute to these benefits. For example, maximal eccentric training enhances electromyography (EMG) activity during eccentric actions, contributing to increased strength. In a comparison of maximal eccentric-only and maximal concentric-only training, EMG activity during maximal eccentric actions was enhanced by 86%, compared to only 11% after concentric training.

The neural adaptations from heavy eccentric training may lead to improved strength, as evidenced by the significantly increased concentric 1RM after performing a heavy eccentric repetition. The eccentric action may enhance neural facilitation during the concentric movement.

Studies have also explored the effects of accentuated eccentric training, where resistance greater than the concentric 1RM is used. These studies indicate that accentuated eccentric training, even at intensities up to 125% of normal 1RM, can result in greater strength gains compared to regular resistance training. These findings are especially beneficial for moderately resistance-trained or untrained individuals.

In the context of competitive athletes, such as Olympic weightlifters, accentuated eccentric training has shown significant advantages. These athletes improved their performance by using 25% of the eccentric actions with 100% to 130% of the 1RM for concentric actions, resulting in increased snatch and clean and jerk performances. Accentuated eccentric training provided competitive athletes with a significant advantage over regular training.

Super-Overload System: Enhancing Strength with Heavy Partial Repetitions

The super-overload system is a specialized form of negative weight training designed to increase strength through the use of partial repetitions performed with an intensity of 125% of an individual’s one-repetition maximum (1RM). In this approach, the goal is to challenge the muscles with super-heavy resistance during the eccentric phase of each repetition.

To illustrate this method, consider an individual with a 1RM of 200 pounds in the bench press. To implement the super-overload system, a resistance of 250 pounds is used (200 pounds x 1.25 = 250 pounds) for the partial repetitions.

Here’s how the super-overload system is executed:

1. Spotters Assist: The lifter initiates the movement with assistance from spotters to raise the weight to the extended-elbow position.
2. Eccentric Phase: The lifter independently lowers the weight as far as possible, emphasizing the eccentric phase, which is the controlled descent of the resistance.
3. Concentric Phase: After lowering the weight, the lifter then raises the weight back to the extended-elbow position, without assistance from the spotters.

Typically, a set consists of 7 to 10 of these partial repetitions. Once the partial repetitions are completed, the resistance is slowly lowered to the chest-touch position, and spotters assist in returning the weight to the extended-elbow position. A standard training session involves performing three sets of these partial repetitions for a given exercise.

Research has shown that after eight weeks of training, three days per week with at least one day of rest between sessions, the super-overload system yields 1RM strength increases in the bench press and leg press that are comparable to those achieved with conventional weight training. This suggests that the super-overload system is as effective as traditional weight training in developing maximum strength.

Because the super-overload system involves using resistances greater than the 1RM, it is crucial to have spotters present when using free weights. However, some resistance training machines can also be used for this method. On certain machines, the resistance can be lifted with both arms or legs, and then the partial repetitions are performed with only one arm or leg.

Unstable Surface Training: Balancing Core Stability and Athletic Performance

Unstable surface training is a form of exercise involving the use of equipment like Swiss balls, inflatable discs, wobble boards, or other unstable surfaces. This type of training aims to improve athletic performance by enhancing various aspects, including balance, kinesthetic sense, proprioception, and core stability. Proponents of unstable surface training argue that by simultaneously targeting stability and mobility, it can lead to better force transfer and control during daily life and sport-specific activities.

The core musculature is central to this training approach, referring to the axial skeleton, muscles, ligaments, and soft tissues with attachments originating from the axial skeleton. Strengthening the core is believed to facilitate optimal force production, transfer, control, and limb movement during athletic endeavors. It’s essential for maintaining trunk stability over the pelvis, thus contributing to improved force production and control during physical activities.

Originally designed for rehabilitation settings, unstable surface training has demonstrated its effectiveness in improving balance, particularly for individuals with impaired balance, such as seniors. Additionally, it appears to have a preventive effect on specific injuries, like low back injuries. However, the impact of unstable surface training on core stability and overall athletic performance can vary due to several factors.

Various types of unstable surface equipment and training programs have been employed to determine their effectiveness in enhancing athletic performance. Additionally, the choice of balance tests can influence the outcomes. Typically, training improves static and dynamic balance. However, for elite athletes with already good stable balance on solid surfaces (common in most sports), training may not lead to significant further improvements in this aspect.

It’s important to note that when exercises are performed on unstable surfaces, there is often a decrease in maximal force capabilities. Furthermore, electromyography (EMG) activity tends to increase. The specific effects on EMG activity may depend on whether comparisons are made using the same absolute resistance or a percentage of the one-repetition maximum (1RM) specific to stable or unstable conditions. Several studies have highlighted variations in muscle activation and activity depending on the muscle group and the type of unstable surface used.

For instance, squatting on a Swiss ball or wobble board has shown increased muscle activation compared to performing the same exercise on a stable surface, especially for highly experienced weight-trained individuals. However, some moderately unstable equipment, such as inflatable discs, may not induce significant increases in muscle activation among highly trained individuals.

While unstable surface exercises are often aimed at increasing core stability by engaging core muscles like the abdominals and low back, some advanced Swiss ball exercises may not sufficiently activate the majority of muscles to increase maximal strength. However, they may be effective for enhancing muscular endurance, especially when performed with a sufficient number of repetitions.

The Influence of Unstable Surface Training on Athletic Performance

The effectiveness of unstable surface training on enhancing athletic performance largely depends on the specific activities involved and whether they are performed in unstable environments. For instance, in sports like ice hockey, where players navigate on a slippery surface, there appears to be no significant correlation between proficiency on a wobble board and skating speed, especially in highly skilled players. This suggests that unstable surface training may not significantly improve performance in such sports.

However, some studies have shown mixed results regarding the impact of unstable surface training on athletic performance. Including wobble board training in the regimen of women Division I athletes resulted in improved performance in a one-minute sit-up test, indicating increased strength and endurance in abdominal muscles, along with better single-leg squat ability. Nonetheless, athletes following their regular training program also demonstrated a similar increase in one-minute sit-up ability, indicating that these gains might not be exclusive to unstable surface training.

A 10-week study involving male Division I athletes, where some performed exercises on inflatable discs while others did not, did not show any advantage associated with the use of these discs. The athletes following their normal training program exhibited a significant increase in drop jump and countermovement jump ability. In contrast, those on unstable surface training showed no change in these measures. However, both groups displayed a significant decrease in sprint ability over 40 and 10 yards. Notably, the normal training group experienced a more significant decrease in 40-yard sprint ability compared to the unstable surface training group. In an agility test (T-test), both groups improved, but no significant difference between training modes was observed.

Adding six weeks of Swiss ball training to the routines of aerobically conditioned athletes did result in significantly increased core stability. However, maximal oxygen consumption and running economy remained unaffected. In another study, team handball throwing velocity saw a significant increase after six weeks of core stability training using various unstable surface devices.

It’s essential to note that guidelines have been developed for the integration of unstable surface training into yearly training programs for athletes, with the focus being on improving balance and possibly reducing the risk of injury. However, the application of this training should be done judiciously, considering the specific needs and goals of athletes in various sports and activities.

Sling Training: Enhancing Strength, Motor Performance, and More

Sling training is a form of exercise that involves using a sling, which can be grasped or used to support body parts such as the feet, for performing a variety of exercises. The key feature of sling training is that it introduces an element of instability, akin to unstable surface exercises, thus enhancing balance and core stability.

This type of exercise offers a broad spectrum of options, including push-ups, variations of rowing exercises, and abdominal or core stability exercises, all made more challenging by the unstable nature of the sling. Like other unstable training techniques, sling training is recognized for its potential to improve balance and core stability.

One significant benefit of sling training is its effectiveness in increasing strength. For example, female college students who engaged in either sling exercises or traditional weight training exercises experienced substantial improvements in isokinetic torque across various movements. Additionally, both groups demonstrated enhanced 1RM bench press and leg press capabilities, with no notable difference between the two training programs. Notably, sling training led to a significantly greater increase in sling push-up ability when compared to traditional weight training. Both groups also achieved significant improvements in balance, further demonstrating that sling training can be as effective as traditional weight training, especially in the initial training period for individuals who were previously untrained in these methods.

Sling training also has a positive impact on motor performance. When combined with other unstable surface training using discs, it significantly improved the throwing velocity of high school female handball players. This boost in throwing velocity has been observed not only in handball players but also in female college softball players. This versatility suggests that sling training can be a valuable asset to athletes aiming to enhance their performance.

Furthermore, sling training can be efficiently incorporated into warm-up routines. In collegiate baseball players, a sling-based warm-up yielded results comparable to those of a more traditional warm-up, increasing both throwing velocity and accuracy. This indicates that sling-based exercises can be an effective means of enhancing strength and motor performance even in a warm-up setting.

One limitation of many sling-based exercises is that resistance is often limited by body mass. However, this limitation can be overcome by introducing additional resistance elements, such as weighted vests, enabling more advanced and challenging workouts.

In conclusion, sling training offers a versatile and effective way to enhance strength, improve motor performance, and even serve as a warm-up routine for athletes and fitness enthusiasts. Its focus on instability and balance makes it a valuable addition to various training regimens, contributing to well-rounded physical development.

Functional Training and Extreme Conditioning Programs: A Comprehensive Overview

Functional Training:

Functional training is a versatile term closely linked to unstable surface training and core stability. Its meaning can vary depending on the context and who is defining it. In a general sense, functional training encompasses a wide range of exercises aimed at improving performance in functional tasks. These tasks could include everyday activities like those encountered in daily living or specific tests related to athletic performance. Thus, the scope of functional training can cover almost any type of training with the intent of enhancing motor performance.

Some individuals associate functional training primarily with exercises performed on unstable surfaces, designed to boost balance and core strength. Unstable surface training, which initially found its roots in rehabilitative settings for individuals with impaired balance (e.g., seniors) and as a preventive measure against certain types of injuries, also addresses tasks like rising from a chair or climbing stairs, which are essential for improving activities of daily living.

However, for others, functional training goes beyond basic balance and core strength and extends to exercises geared not only towards everyday activities but also for athletic pursuits. These functional exercises often include plyometric activities, core-specific rotational exercises, as well as unconventional training methods like kettlebell training, which incorporates ballistic and rotational movements.

This broad definition of functional training indicates that it can take on multiple forms and meanings, depending on the context and goals of the training program. Regardless of how functional training is defined, various sources of information, demonstrate that it has the potential to significantly enhance both strength and motor performance.

Extreme Conditioning Programs:

Extreme conditioning programs are characterized by high-volume, multi-exercise routines with minimal rest periods. They have gained widespread popularity and may involve intensive, frequent training sessions, sometimes occurring five or six days a week. These programs encompass a wide range of exercises, often featuring multijoint movements, variations of Olympic lifts, interval training, and plyometrics.

While the specifics of extreme conditioning programs may vary, a typical session might involve circuit-style workouts, where exercises like squats, bench presses, and deadlifts are performed for sets of decreasing repetitions, with the resistance set at 80% of an individual’s one-repetition maximum (1RM). In this style of training, minimal rest between exercises is the goal.

Extreme conditioning programs have several notable benefits, including reduced body fat and enhanced local muscular endurance, attributed to the high training volume. However, there are potential downsides associated with these programs, largely due to the high volume of training. Participants may experience a decline in exercise technique as fatigue sets in, increasing the risk of overuse injuries and acute injuries. More severe concerns include conditions like exertional rhabdomyolysis, as well as overreaching and overtraining.

To mitigate these potential issues, trainers are advised to personalize strength conditioning programs and implement a gradual progression in volume, intensity, and frequency to allow for physiological adaptations. Proper periodization and adequate rest between sessions are essential to facilitate recovery and minimize the risk of adverse outcomes.

Rest-Pause, or Interrepetition Rest, Technique: A Comprehensive Overview

The rest-pause, or interrepetition rest, technique is a method of resistance training that involves performing one or more repetitions with a relatively heavy load and then taking a brief rest before performing additional repetitions. It is often referred to as cluster training because sets are broken down into clusters of repetitions separated by short rest intervals. During the rest-pause technique, the lifter sets down the weight for a short period, typically between 10 to 15 seconds, before proceeding with more repetitions. This process can be repeated multiple times, usually four or five rounds. In cases where the lifter is unable to complete a full repetition, spotters may provide just enough assistance to finish the required number of repetitions. Multiple sets of an exercise can be performed in this manner.

Proponents of the rest-pause technique believe that by lifting a heavy resistance for several repetitions with brief rest intervals, it allows the lifter to either use a heavier resistance or maintain power (or both) in subsequent repetitions. These outcomes can lead to greater increases in strength or power through training.

Research indicates that allowing rest between repetitions does indeed increase power output compared to performing repetitions without rest. Athletes who performed repetitions as fast as possible in a traditional set of six repetitions at a six-repetition maximum (6RM), compared to those using the same resistance for six sets of one repetition with 20 seconds of rest between sets, three sets of two repetitions with 50 seconds of rest between sets, and two sets of three repetitions with 100 seconds of rest between sets, showed significantly greater power output in repetitions 4 through 6 (a range of 25-49% increase) when rest was allowed. The total power output across all sets with rest between repetitions was also greater (21.6-25.1%) compared to traditional 6RM sets. There was no significant difference in power output among the three protocols.

A similar pattern emerges in studies involving exercises like power cleans and squat jumps, where rest intervals between repetitions or groups of repetitions resulted in better maintenance of power output. This suggests that incorporating rest intervals in resistance training could be valuable when the goal is to enhance power or strength.

However, it’s essential to note that chronic use of the rest-pause technique may not provide a significant advantage. One study involving highly trained rugby athletes showed that although cluster training had a somewhat greater effect on certain measures of power than traditional training, there was no substantial difference in power improvement.

An alternative variation of the rest-pause technique did result in significant strength gains. This method involved performing one set of 6 to 10 repetitions with a 6RM resistance, with 30 seconds of rest between each repetition. Strength gains from this variation were compared to one set of six repetitions with the same resistance but without rest between repetitions. Both groups demonstrated significantly greater increases in 1RM compared to a control group. Nevertheless, the group that didn’t rest between repetitions exhibited a significantly larger increase in 1RM compared to the rest-pause group.

These findings suggest that for the rest-pause technique to yield greater strength gains than traditional training, the lifter may need to use a resistance close to their one-repetition maximum for the number of repetitions performed. While the rest-pause method doesn’t appear to provide an advantage for maximal strength gains, it may be beneficial when training to enhance power output.

Chain or Elastic Band Technique for Added Resistance: A Comprehensive Overview

The chain and elastic band training technique is a method of strength training that adds variable resistance to traditional resistance exercises. It involves attaching chains or elastic bands to a barbell or other resistance equipment. This technique is popular among elite lifters and is commonly used in exercises like bench presses, squats, and deadlifts, especially those with ascending strength curves or Olympic lifts requiring power and acceleration.

When using chains, they are hung from both ends of the barbell with hooks. At the starting position of an exercise (e.g., the chest-touch position in a bench press), only a small section of the chain is off the ground, contributing minimal resistance. As the lifter lifts the barbell during the concentric phase, more chain is lifted off the ground, adding progressively more resistance. Elastic bands work similarly, as they stretch during the concentric phase, creating increasing resistance.

Two primary techniques for using chains are the linear technique, where one or more chains are hung on each side of the barbell, and the double-loop technique, where a smaller chain is attached to the barbell while the other end is linked to a larger chain. This double-loop approach can significantly increase resistance compared to the linear technique. Chains of different sizes and loops can be used to adjust resistance.

Studies have shown that chain training enhances 1RM bench press ability and correlates positively with normal bench press 1RM. It indicates that improving chain-based bench press strength can lead to increased traditional bench press strength. However, when looking at squats performed with and without chains, electromyography (EMG) activity of muscle groups and ground reaction forces do not significantly differ between the last repetitions of a set performed with a 5RM resistance. This implies that there is no advantage to chain training in this context.

Chain training does impact the velocity of movement during exercises. For example, when comparing a bench press with 75% of 1RM to one using 60% of 1RM with chains increasing resistance to approximately 75% of 1RM, the concentric lifting velocity increased by about 10% with chain use. Eccentric lifting velocity was also increased. In deadlifts with chains, peak velocity, peak power, and rate of force development were affected. Peak velocity, peak power, and rate of force development were significantly reduced, and peak force increased significantly. It means that using chains in deadlifts can affect movement velocity, power, and force production, but the results can vary depending on how chains are used to change resistance.

Training studies have favored the use of chains and elastic bands, showing a significant increase in 1RM back squat and bench press compared to traditional training. In some cases, untrained individuals showed greater 1RM increases with elastic band training compared to traditional free weight training.

Use of chains during Olympic lifts like the clean and snatch did not result in significant differences in variables like vertical ground reaction forces, vertical bar displacement, bar velocity, and rate of force production. However, athletes using chains reported that greater effort was required, both psychologically and physiologically, when incorporating chains into their training.

Complex Training, or Contrast Loading: A Comprehensive Overview

Complex training, also known as contrast loading, is a strength training technique that combines high-intensity strength exercises with explosive, power-type exercises. It is designed to enhance power output in activities such as jumping, sprinting, and throwing. This approach involves performing a set of strength exercises, such as squats, followed by a brief rest period and then power-based exercises like vertical jumps. This sequence can include one or multiple sets of both strength and power exercises, and various combinations of exercises can be used in a single training session.

The key concept behind complex training is “postactivation potentiation,” which refers to the improved performance or power output following a preceding strength exercise. While the exact mechanisms of postactivation potentiation are not entirely understood, it is thought to result from short-term neural adaptations, increased muscle fiber recruitment, or the suppression of neural protective mechanisms, like Golgi tendon organs.

Research has shown that complex training can acutely increase power output and velocity of movement. However, several factors influence whether postactivation potentiation occurs. The timing between the strength exercise and the assessment of power output is critical. Postactivation potentiation is most apparent within a range of 4 to 12 minutes after the strength exercise. It may last as long as six hours, but the effects can vary.

Muscle fiber type, exercise type (isometric vs. dynamic), contraction speed (fast vs. slow), and training status also affect postactivation potentiation. For example, type II muscle fibers, fast concentric actions, and isometric actions tend to produce stronger postactivation potentiation responses. Trained and stronger individuals typically exhibit greater responses compared to untrained or weaker individuals.

The resistance used in the strength exercise can also influence the outcomes of complex training. While resistance around 3-5RM is often used to induce postactivation potentiation, there is no universal consensus. Some studies indicate that the resistance level during the strength exercise can affect the results, highlighting the variability in responses.

Complex training is not limited to a single set of strength exercises; multiple sets or different exercise combinations can also trigger postactivation potentiation. For instance, multiple sets of a particular activity and power-type exercises may elicit postactivation potentiation, depending on the training regimen.

Despite these findings, there is limited research on the long-term effects of complex training. Some studies have shown that complex training can result in significant improvements in strength and power.